what do bleach, strong cleaning agents, quats, solvents, and acetone have in common?

Introduction

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The SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic has called for frequent use of disinfectants. (1,2) In response, disinfection practices were intensified in private households and public facilities such as public transportation, grocery stores, hospitals, schools, and colleges during the pandemic. (3−5) The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) List N: Disinfectants for Use Against SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) has 545 products, which contain quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), hydrogen peroxide, bleach (sodium hypochlorite), alcohols (ethanol and isopropanol), acids, and phenolic compounds as the active ingredients. (6) Among those, the most common active ingredients are QACs (in 253 products), hydrogen peroxide (in 84 products), bleach (in 75 products), ethanol/isopropanol (in 59 products), peroxyacetic acid (in 31 products), and phenolic compounds (in 29 products). Hydrogen peroxide and alcohols are volatile and short-lived, whereas QACs are nonvolatile compounds that remain in the environment for longer periods. Besides being potent disinfectants in mitigating virus burden, these chemicals appear to cause long-term adverse effects on health and the environment. Here, we discuss the modes of action of some common disinfectants, interactions between disinfectant chemicals and commonly used materials and surfaces, and impacts on health, safety, and the environment. This article will review and discuss the effectiveness of disinfectants, primarily QACs, against bacteria and viruses, the impact on human health and the environment from the use of these disinfectants, current monitoring methods, and the effects on common household fabrics and plastics. This review will help inform researchers of the need for sustainable yet effective cleaning and monitoring practices of chemical disinfectants.

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are active components in hospital and household cleaners, fabric softeners, preservatives, and cosmetics. (7) QACs with alkyl chain lengths from C6 to C30 have been reported. The carbon chain length influences the biocidal activities of QACs. In general, alkyl chain lengths from C12 to C16 exhibit higher antimicrobial activities. (8,9)Table 1 includes some common QACs including benzalkonium chloride (BAC) which consists of a benzyl moiety, an alkyl chain, and two methyl groups that can be accompanied by a halide anion, (10) alkyltrimethylammonium chloride (ATMAC) with an alkyl chain ranging from C12 to C18, and dialkyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) with two alkyl chains ranging from C8 to C18. (11) These compounds carry a net positive charge and can bind to negatively charged bacterial cells to deactivate and kill the bacteria. QACs have also been proven to be effective against enveloped viruses (2) including SARS-CoV-2. (12) Similar to bacterial cell deactivation, QACs can permeate the phospholipid bilayer of the viruses via their long alkyl chains thereby causing disorganization of the lipid bilayer envelope and deactivate viruses. (10,13,14) Thus, the employment of these compounds for use against COVID-19 has been vital throughout the duration of the pandemic.

Table 1. Chemical Structures of Some Common Disinfectants

However, the increased use of these compounds and their discharge into wastewater have adverse impacts on aquatic and plant life. (15,16) In addition, the uses of QACs have been linked to occupational illnesses such as asthma and an increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). (17−20) Therefore, monitoring of exposure to these compounds is deemed necessary to take proper action to mitigate potential impacts to human health and the environment. Besides, these disinfectants have been found to affect materials used in personal protective equipment (PPE) and cleaning materials/fabrics. For example, the use of cotton towels in wiping the surfaces sprayed with QAC disinfectants was shown to deactivate QACs, therefore affecting disinfection efficiency of these compounds. Thus, cotton fabrics are not recommended for use when cleaning with QACs. (21) Another study showed that the general use of disinfectants when cleaning face masks reduced the filtration efficiency of the masks and, in some cases, destroyed the mask fabric material. (22) Therefore, it is also important to understand the effects QACs have on materials that are generally subjected to frequent disinfections such as frequently touched surfaces, household fabrics and textiles, and common plastics to help prevent enduring issues.

Other disinfectants such as alcohols, bleach, and hydrogen peroxide (shown in Table 1) have been employed due to their oxidative nature and ability to target intracellular components. These chemicals make up ∼40% of the disinfectants approved by the EPA for combating SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, it is imperative to understand potential impacts from overuse of these disinfectants on human health and the environment.

Mode of Action

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Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs)

The mode of action of QACs on a microbe comprises of irreversible binding of positively charged QACs to the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane, protein denaturation, and impeding cell membrane function. (23) McDonnell and Russell described this phenomenon as a series of five events: (1) adsorption of QAC on phospholipid bilayer and subsequent penetration into the cell membrane; (2) reaction with the cytoplasmic membrane followed by disorganization; (3) leaking of low molecular weight intracellular components; (4) degradation of proteins and nucleic acids; and (5) cell wall lysis caused by autolytic enzymes. (24) In a more recent study, Wessels and Ingmer describe the deactivation of bacterial cells as a physical phenomenon rather than a chemical reaction. (10) The QACs act as wedges and ion exchangers in the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. (10) This damage is caused by the long alkyl chain permeating and disrupting physical and biochemical properties of the cell membrane, while the positively charged nitrogen directly interacts with the surface of the membrane disrupting the charge distribution. (10,25) It was also shown that 15 μg/L of BAC and 12 μg/L of DDAC caused catastrophic membrane collapse on Staphylococcal aureus cells along with high levels of intracellular materials being released. (26) The uptake isotherms of these two compounds showed that they adsorbed parallel or perpendicular to the cell surface as well as created new binding sites due to membrane damage. (26) After adsorption onto the cell surface, there was an immediate release of leakage markers from the S. aureus cells which resulted in autolysis and cell death. (26) Therefore, these compounds are membrane-active agents that interact with the cytoplasmic membrane. (26)Figure 1 illustrates the mechanism of bacterial cell deactivation with QACs. The alkyl chain of the BAC (type of QAC represented in Table 1) is shown penetrating the phospholipid bilayer, thereby disrupting cell membrane functionality. This leads to the leakage of membrane proteins and intracellular components via solubilization into QAC/phospholipid micelles, ultimately causing cell lysis and death. (27)

Figure 1

Figure 1. Reprinted with permission from ref (27). Copyright 2005 John Wiley and Sons. Schematic illustrating the mode of action of QACs on a cell with increased exposure/concentration (a–f). The alkyl chains of the QAC wedge themselves into the phospholipid bilayer, creating hydrophilic voids and disrupting the cell membrane. This leads to altering protein function and eventual cell lysis with phospholipids and proteins solubilizing into micelles. The inset micrograph shows vesicle formation on the outer membrane caused by QACs. (27)

QACs are not only effective against bacterial cells, but these chemicals have been shown to deactivate lipid enveloped viruses. QACs induce disintegration and morphological changes in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and influenza. (10,13,14) These viruses are all encapsulated within a phospholipid bilayer membrane called the envelope as is the COVID-19 virus. Since QACs are membrane-active agents, they can bind to the phospholipid bilayer, thereby causing disorganization, leakage of intracellular materials, and cell death. (14) Therefore, these disinfectant compounds could be an easy way to combat the virus spread on surfaces.

Hydrogen Peroxide, Bleach, and Alcohols

Other disinfectants such as hydrogen peroxide, bleach, and alcohol deactivate bacterial and viral cells by targeting proteins, lipids, and DNA. (24,28) More specifically, hydrogen peroxide attacks intracellular components via the production of hydroxyl free radicals through oxidation, which target sulfhydryl groups and double bonds thereby depolymerizing highly polymerized structures such as DNA. (23,24,29) Bleach also acts as an oxidizing agent to break down peptide links, inhibit enzyme activity, and denature proteins. (13,23,24) Alcohols such as isopropanol and ethanol denature proteins through cell membrane damage, interfere with cell metabolism and cytoplasmic integrity, and ultimately cause cell lysis. (24,28) The denaturation of proteins occurs through the inhibition and uncoupling of mRNA and protein synthesis via direct effects on ribosomes and RNA polymerase. (28) A summary of the target components of the disinfectants discussed can be seen in Figure 2. The virucidal effects of these disinfectant chemicals have been studied in lipophilic viruses such as herpes, influenza, HIV1, hepatitis B and C, vaccinia, and SARs-CoV-1, which are found deactivated within up to 30 s of exposure to those chemicals. (28) Thus, hydrogen peroxide, bleach, and alcohol are used against the COVID-19 virus. (6,30)

Figure 2

Figure 2. Diagram of target cell components for disinfectants.

Environmental Impact

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Recently, there have been rising concerns of SARS-CoV-2 transmission linked to wastewaters as the virus RNA has been detected in human feces. (31,32) In response, intensified disinfection practices to hospital and city wastewaters have been implemented to prevent possible transmission. (31,33) However, overuse of these chemicals, such as chlorine-based disinfectants and their byproducts, can have adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems as they can get into sewage systems, pollute water resources, and get into lakes and rivers through direct runoff and indirect sewage effluents. (34) This imposes a risk on aquatic life, which should be considered during disinfection practices.

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs)

The widespread use of quaternary ammonium compounds as disinfectants and in other industrial applications can make their ways into the environment via various means such as wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and land application of biosolids. (2,35) Although WWTPs remove a large portion of QAC contaminants, residual QAC concentrations in WWTP discharge have been found at concentrations ranging from 20 to 300 μg/L, (35) which is above the threshold of toxicity for certain organisms. Di Nica et al. studied toxicity effects of five QACs (benzyl dimethyl dodecyl ammonium chloride [BAC-12]; decyl trimethylammonium bromide [C10TAB]; didecyl dimethylammonium chloride [DADMAC-10]; hexadecyl trimethylammonium chloride [ATMAC-16]; and tetradecyl trimethylammonium bromide [C14TAB]) that occur in effluents from WWTPs. (36) It has been reported that the inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) of QACs for A. fischeri, a bioluminescent bacterium used in the Microtox Test System, a standardized toxicity assay, is 0.17–4.37 mg/L, depending on the specific variety of the QAC. (36) The cytotoxic effects of QACs on aquatic life such as fish and algae have been studied as well. (2,37) Christen et al. reported that exposure to three QACs (BAC, barquat, and benzalkonium chloride) caused cytotoxicity in mammalian cells and zebrafish liver cells. In addition, induction of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress genes and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) occurred with barquat and BAC (C12–C14-alkyl(ethylbenzyl)dimethylammonium chloride). In vivo experiments performed in zebrafish embryos exposed to BACs caused expression of ER stress genes, TNF-α, and apoptosis-related genes. (37) Furthermore, toxicities of QACs on wide varieties of aquatic and soil organisms including marine bacteria, algae, protozoa, daphnids, and fish (e.g., rainbow trout) have been reviewed. (2)

Remediation Practices

QACs are removed from water primarily through adsorption onto activated sludge. This is due to the strong affinity QACs have toward organic and inorganic particles found in freshwater sediments. Besides, biodegradation and photolysis (2,15) as illustrated in Figure 3 are among other pathways that reduce environmental burden. It has been predicted that photolysis half-lives of some common QACs (such as benzyldimethyl-n-dodecylammonium chloride (C12-BAC), benzyldimethyltetradecyl-ammonium chloride (C14-BAC), benzethonium chloride (BZT), didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (C12-DADMA), and didodecyltrimethylammonium bromide C12-ATMA) are 12–94 days. (35) While biodegradation studies of QACs have been mainly reported using activated sludge or enrichment cultures, marine bacteria also degrade QACs at half-lives of 5–10 days. (2) However, if the concentration of the disinfectants becomes too high, this may interfere with the ability of the activated sludge system to break down waste. (15) Thus, the sludge can also be a source of terrestrial QAC contamination if used as fertilizer in agricultural applications. (11,15) In a study by Li et al., wheat seedlings were tested against varying concentrations of three different types of QACs: dodecyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (DBAC), dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride (DTAC), and didodecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC). The study showed that when plants were exposed to low concentrations of 0.05 to 0.80 mg/L of the disinfectants, root fresh weight and shoot fresh weight increased by as much as 43% for the former and 13% for the latter. (11) However, at higher concentrations, plant growth was inhibited with decreases in shoot and root weight, root length, and photosynthetic pigment content. At concentrations above 1 mg/L, the QACs had toxic effects, causing as much as an 80% decrease in shoot fresh weight for 20 mg/L of DBAC and DTAC. (11) The toxicity was less for DDAC, with 20 mg/L causing a 60% decrease in shoot fresh weight. (11) DBAC was found to be slightly more toxic than DTAC.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Diagram of major pathways for environmental fate of QACs. R1, R2, R3, and R4 represent substituents attached to quaternary nitrogen, and X^– represents a halide counterion.

Xiang et al. reported QACs in 27 vegetable samples collected from Guangzhou in southern China. (38) The vegetable samples tested showed QACs—dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride (DTAC), cetyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTAC), and didodecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC), three QACs that are frequently used in agriculture, with concentrations ranging from 23 to 180 μg/kg. (38) Although the health effects of these QAC-contaminated vegetables were not studied, the study showed that use of QACs in agriculture could result in agro products contaminated with QACs.

Hydrogen Peroxide, Alcohols, and Bleach

Other disinfectants such as hydrogen peroxide, bleach, and alcohols can enter the environment through the same pathways as described for QAC contaminants. (39) Chhetri, Baun, and Anderson reported toxicity from hydrogen peroxide to P. subcapitata, a green microalgae, with an EC50 of 2.90 mg/L. (40) Furthermore, sodium hypochlorite in bleach along with hypochlorous acid (produced when NaOCl undergoes hydrolysis) present in hospital wastewater had a high toxicity toward Daphnia magna, Vibrio fischeri, and fecal coliforms with toxic units ranging from 9.8 to 116.8, 1.1 to 4.15, and <3 to 2400, respectively, in reference to a threshold of 2. (41) Thus, like QACs, these disinfectants should be monitored as an increase in environmental exposure is likely a result from the disinfection practices amid the COVID-19 pandemic.

Impact on Human Health

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Routes of Human Exposure

Overuse of disinfectants during the pandemic has also resulted in increased exposure to disinfecting chemicals among consumers. The potential exposure to disinfectants can occur via oral, nasal, and dermal routes. Humans are exposed to disinfecting chemicals mainly through four pathways: (i) dermal absorption during application of disinfectants and upon touching disinfected surfaces with the bare hand, (ii) hand-to-mouth ingestion of disinfectant residues after touching disinfected surfaces, (iii) inhalation of indoor air from disinfected households and public places, and (iv) ingestion of disinfectant byproducts present in drinking water. (31,42,43) Besides, accidental exposures to these chemicals due to misuse or improper use have increased during the pandemic. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has reported that the number of calls to poison centers during the pandemic (e.g., January 2020–March 2020) for exposure to cleaners (e.g., household bleach) and disinfectants (nonalcoholic products and sanitizers) increased by 20.4% and 16.4%, respectively, when compared to the same period in the pre-pandemic years of 2019 and 2018. (44) The majority of those cases involved ingestion (58.7%) and inhalation (22.7%) (44) of disinfectant chemicals. Although these increased exposures are associated with misuse/improper use of chemical disinfectants, humans can also be exposed to disinfectants during or after proper uses. Recent findings have shown that exposure can cause QAC disinfectants to appear in blood circulation (vide infra).

Due to the physicochemical characteristics and nonvolatile nature, QACs can adhere to hard surfaces and adsorb onto dust particles more effectively than volatile disinfectants. The indoor dust collected from homes that were disinfected more frequently (1–5 times/week) during the pandemic was found to have up to a 62% increase in overall QAC concentration. (1) This study, focused on 19 QACs including BACs, DDACs, and ATMACs detected in indoor dust samples, estimated daily intakes of QACs during the pandemic via indoor dust ingestion for toddlers up to 615 ng/kg body weight, which was up to 10 times higher than that estimated for adults. (1) These values for BACs and DDACs were below the tolerable daily intake thresholds for these compounds established by the European Food Safety Authority. The increase in QAC usage is also likely in hospitals due to increased number of hospitalizations amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Bello et al. (19) proposed two possible methods of QAC exposure identified in a hospital working environment: (1) direct inhalation of aerosolized liquid particles during application and (2) inhalation of QAC adsorbed dust particles resuspended in air. Using an indoor fate and chemical exposure model with 22 active ingredients in recommended disinfecting products against COVID-19 and considering a typical U.S. household and a single application per day scenario, Li et al. conducted preliminary studies on human exposure and health risk for disinfectants under surface application and hand hygiene scenarios. (42) The surface application scenario considered human exposure to QACs through surface-to-hand and hand-to-mouth contacts (ingestion), (42) which is likely upon touching the disinfected hard surfaces without wiping off chemical products after application. It was reported that QACs (C12–C18 BAC) have the highest daily uptake under the surface application scenario as compared to other compounds such as triclocarban and triclosan. However, the predicted blood concentration of QACs was lower than those of other common disinfectants because QACs were predicted to be relatively rapidly eliminated from the human body. The study also found that the total exposure and relative contribution of each exposure route vary considerably among the disinfectants and age groups. Exposure-related health risks were evaluated by comparing the predicted uptake doses with in vivo animal-based toxicological data and in vitro assays. Even though the predicted blood concentration of QACs was lower than those of other tested compounds, adults and children were considered at risk for cetrimonium bromide, a QAC, after a single application. (42)

Chlorine-based disinfectants (e.g., bleach) are commonly used as antimicrobial agents in public spaces, workplaces, and households. Indoor bleach cleaning causes a release of elevated hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and chlorine (Cl₂)—up to several orders of magnitude higher as compared to the outdoor atmosphere. (45) General public and professional cleaners are, therefore, susceptible toward exposure to chlorinated products released during indoor cleaning with bleach solution. Ha et al. developed a colorimetric method in which a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) patch was doped with o-dianisidine dye (a dye that changes color rapidly and stably upon oxidation) to indicate exposure to chlorine gas compounds from household bleach disinfectants during routine cleaning practices. (46) Besides, total chlorine in disinfectants could be determined by using a color-wheel test kit and digital colorimeters. (47) Another potential exposure route to consider is the ingestion of chlorine-based chemical disinfectants via contaminated drinking water. As a response to the pandemic, heavy sanitation of streets, buildings, and beaches with chlorine-based disinfectants have been conducted worldwide. It has been reported that elevated doses of chlorination were performed in wastewater and drinking water compared to the pre-pandemic period. (31,43) While the COVID-19 virus is susceptible to chlorine, elevated concentrations of these chemicals in surface and wastewaters could pose health risks to humans. Thus, formation of toxic disinfectant byproducts in domestic wastewater, drinking water, and surface water could pose health risks and should not be overlooked. Exposure to alcohol-based disinfectants is mainly through dermal absorption and inhalation of vapors. (48,49)

Effects of QACs

Respiratory exposure to QACs could cause an airway allergy such as asthma. (19) Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and DDAC can increase the risk of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), infertility (studied in mice), and could play a role in inhibiting cholesterol biosynthesis. (15,17−20,25,50) Larsen, Verder, and Nielsen observed a concentration-dependent reduced tidal volume and increased respiratory rates in mice after inhalation of aerosols of BAC (CAS 8001-54-5), hexadecyl trimethylammonium bromide (HTA), cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), and dimethyldioctadecyl ammonium bromide (DDA) at concentrations up to 5.3 mg/m³. (17) It was concluded that the inhalation of QACs induced deep lung effects and caused lung inflammation at higher concentrations. (17) Another area of concern is infertility upon exposure to alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC) and DDAC. According to Melin et al., mice that were exposed to these chemicals exhibited reduced fertility and fecundity, took longer to get pregnant, and yielded smaller litter sizes. (25) Furthermore, a lower sperm count and reduced time and length of estrus cycles were observed in the male and female mice exposed through food and water consumption. (25) These effects were observed at low (7.5 mg/kg/day) and ambient (routine husbandry disinfection processes) concentrations. (25) This is cautionary for human fertility. Given that the use of QACs has significantly increased during the pandemic, a thorough research investigation on human fertility upon QAC exposure is warranted. Therefore, adequate preventive measures should be taken when using and handling these disinfectants.

The presence of QACs in the blood was found to increase inflammatory cytokines, decrease mitochondrial function, and disrupt cholesterol homeostasis in a dose dependent manner. (51) Hrubec et al. reported that QACs (BACs of varying alkyl chain lengths and DDAC) were detected in human blood samples. It was reported that QACs were detected in approximately 80% of the participants (43 volunteers) with total QAC concentrations ranging from 10 to 150 nM. It was observed that DDAC resulted in increased TNF-α concentrations, inhibited mitochondrial function, and upregulation of zymosterol, 7-dehydrocholesterol, desmosterol, lanosterol, and cholesterol (cholesterol synthesis intermediates). (51) Furthermore, C12 BAC was associated with an increase in lanosterol production; C14 BAC exposures exhibited an increase in inflammatory biomarkers (Stimulated IL-6); and C16 BAC largely affected sterol homeostasis, inflammation, and mitochondrial function. (51) This demonstrates how QACs could potentially affect physiological processes in the body.

Cholesterol biosynthesis is essential for embryonic development, synapse formation and function, and myelination. (50) However, cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors can cause disorders such as congenital malformations and defects in neural development. (50) In a study conducted by Herron et al., (50) it was observed that the benzyl group and chain length of QACs played an important role in binding to the active site of 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (also known as DHCR7)—an enzyme involved in cholesterol biosynthesis. (50) Specifically, BACs can inhibit DHCR7 at noncytotoxic concentrations and have been shown to cross the blood–brain barrier in rats (1.2 μg/g concentration in serum led to 0.2 μg/g in the brain), which suggested a potential threat to the central nervous system. (50) Thus, the increase in uses and exposure to QACs during the pandemic need to be thoroughly investigated to understand potential threats to neural defects in young and unborn children.

Effects of Bleach, Hydrogen Peroxide, and Alcohols

Alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and bleach-based disinfectants have been shown to increase risk of COPD and reduce asthma control at high-level exposures. (18,52,53) Among these chemicals, bleach (sodium hypochlorite) is commonly used in household and hospital cleaners. Due to its oxidative nature, bleach reacts with biological tissues, denaturing proteins and causing irritation and cell death. (54) It is also important to note that bleach in combination with other household chemicals such as toilet bowl cleaners, ammonia, and surfactants in laundry detergents can cause the release of chlorine gas and chloroform. (53,54) If those toxic gases are inhaled, severe respiratory health damage will occur (represented in Figure 4). When chlorine gas comes into contact with moist tissues (eyes or lungs), hydrochloric acid, a digestive molecule, is produced which can damage airways, cause asphyxiation, and death. (54) Furthermore, Holm et al. reported an acute exposure to 0.4 ppm of bleach and 1 ppm of chlorine gas (consistent levels in cleaning practices) in adults experiencing chronic exposure caused bronchospasms. (53) Therefore, precautionary measures should be taken when using bleach as a household and industrial cleaner.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Schematic of potential respiratory damage from inhalation of toxic gases released when bleach and other cleaning agents are mixed.

Hydrogen peroxide can produce mild gastrointestinal and eye irritations at frequently used concentrations of 3% or less. (53,55) Furthermore, hydrogen peroxide can cause mutagenic effects through DNA and protein damage in dilutions of 30% solution and can be life-threatening at concentrations of 75 ppm. (56) Alcohol-based disinfectants appear to pose the lowest health and safety risks among healthcare workers. (28) One of the main routes of exposure to these disinfecting chemicals during cleaning/disinfection practices is through dermal absorption, which is known to be a slow process and would require large amounts or prolonged exposure to nonintact skin in order to cause systemic toxicity. (28,57) Furthermore, Maier et al. determined that the reproductive risk through the use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers is negligibly small. (48) Although alcohol and hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants have generally low toxicity when used for cleaning practices, the increased risk of developing and controlling asthma, COPD, and other respiratory issues upon long-term exposure should not be overlooked.

Methods of Monitoring Exposure

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As discussed previously, humans can be exposed to disinfectants from a variety of sources such as aquatic, air, and surface environments. Examples of these sources include residual disinfectants during cleaning and disinfection of surfaces, overuse of disinfectants in wastewater, drinking water, and sludge treatments, indoor aerosols/air particulates, vegetables, etc. Therefore, it is crucial that sensitive and robust measurement technologies are available to measure disinfectants in diverse substrates. The monitoring of disinfectant exposure in humans and the environment could help mitigate further exposures and toxic side effects.

QACs are usually measured using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC- MS) or liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methods. (38,51,58−60) LC-MS methods have been used to measure various QACs present in indoor dust particles, (1) environmental water samples, (59) and human blood samples, (51) whereas GC-MS methods have been used to measure QACs such as CTAC, DDAC, and DTAC in vegetables. (38)

Colorimetric methods are sometimes used for qualitative detection of QACs (61,62) in aqueous solution by using color changing dyes. (62) UV–vis absorbance measurements can be used for quantitative measurement of QACs in a solution. (61)Figure 5 illustrates two approaches of detection–sample extraction and quantitative analysis using chromatography and spectrometry methods and the qualitative colorimetric method. Hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants can be detected by colorimetric, UV–vis measurements, LC-MS, GC-MS, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), fluorescence spectroscopy, etc. (56,65,66) Alcohol-based disinfectants are usually measured by LC-MS and GC-MS methods. (63,64)

Figure 5

Figure 5. Schematic of two common methods for the detection of QACs: (a) conventional analysis in fruits/vegetables, dust particulates, and aqueous environments and (b) colorimetric rapid test.

Limitations and Challenges of Monitoring QACs

Increasing uses and exposures to chemical disinfectants during the pandemic (44) could potentially cause adverse health issues in the future. It is crucial to limit exposure to disinfectants via effective monitoring practices that are cost-effective, user-friendly and provide real-time information to inform the users. When repeatedly exposed to QACs and other disinfectants, early detection of disinfectants or their byproducts in biological samples is crucial, which may facilitate for timely action to prevent downstream effects. Although methods are emerging for the detection of other disinfectant compounds, (46) investigations toward new method developments for QACs detection appear limited. A recent study showed correlation between QACs in human blood and changes in biomarkers. (51) However, the biological fate of these disinfectants in other biological samples such as tissues, urine, saliva, sweat, etc. remains largely unknown. Further investigation on QACs in biological environments including skin, tissues, and biofluids such as blood, urine, sweat, cerebrospinal fluids, etc. would provide a better understanding of exposure routes and biological fate of these disinfectants. Current technologies for the detection of QACs use hazardous reagents, require sample preparation and extraction, and necessitate trained personnel and sophisticated instruments to execute the detection protocols. Thus, current LC-MS and GC-MS technologies are not suitable for molecular detection in the native biological samples and for field applications. Therefore, new methods of monitoring personal exposure to QACs are deemed necessary.

Although colorimetric and visual detection of QACs using reagents immobilized on solid substrates (cotton swab and plastics) has been reported (as shown in Figure 5), (61,62) such studies are limited to proof-of-concept testing and have not been used to investigate QACs in real environmental samples or the complex biological environment. A user-friendly real-time self-monitoring system that could be deployed without the need for hazardous reagents and solvents would provide a sustainable and efficient monitoring system for personal exposures to QACs. Perhaps, this field can take advantage of emerging technologies to develop portable and wearable sensors/devices like those used in monitoring diabetes and other personal health.

Effect on Household Plastics and Fabrics

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Degradation and Unintended Interactions

Household plastic articles and textile fabrics are made up of polymeric materials such as polyethylene (PE), polycarbonate (PC), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and cellulose (e.g., cotton). The pandemic has led to increased disinfection practices which include wiping surfaces, spraying aerosols, and frequent decontaminating of plastic and textile products. Although more frequent disinfection practices are necessary, the effect of disinfectants coming into contact with commonly touched surfaces could lead to polymeric material degradation or decreasing the efficiency of disinfectants and unintended interactions. For example, studies have reported that cotton products can deactivate QAC disinfectants, thereby reducing the efficiency of these chemicals against microbes. (21,67−69) The deactivation by cotton products is due to the strong interactions between the ammonium group in QACs and the hydroxyl (−OH) on the cellulose structure. (61,70) Engelbrecht et al. investigated this by comparing the effects of usage on cotton towels and microfiber cloths (typically made of polyester and polyamide) in three different QAC solutions. (21) When the disinfecting solution was used with cotton towels, a sharp decrease in available QAC concentration in the solution by an average of 85% (21) was observed, which resulted in a substantial decrease in antimicrobial efficacy against bacteria such as S. aureus, salmonella, and P. aeruginosa. (21)

QACs may also have a degradation effect on plastics. Jo et al. investigated the effects of disinfectants on commonly used polymers to test for surface damage. (71) High and low density polyethylene (HDPE and LDPE) and polycarbonate (PC) films were tested against QACs by wiping each polymer surface 200 times at 0.04 MPa to mimic six months of routine disinfection. (71) It was observed that the PC film formed a sticky residue that could not be washed off when treated with diluted QACs, indicating physicochemical changes at the surface of the PC film, further confirmed by XPS analysis. (71) Also, the residue was only present on PC films treated with diluted QACs and not with full strength QACs, meaning that water was deemed necessary for the aforementioned changes. (71) Polycarbonate polymers are used in many consumer plastics such as water bottles, food containers, phone cases, and eyeglass lenses (including laboratory safety glasses). Therefore, the chemical changes that occur between PC films and diluted QACs should be noted during disinfecting practices. Although PC films may degrade with QAC solutions, LDPE and HDPE did not yield any significant physicochemical changes. However, mechanical damage was observed in the form of stress whitening (scratches on the surface) on LDPE films that reached up to 925 nm in depth. (71) This may be of concern as the size of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is around 150 nm (72) which could potentially lead to the virus embedding itself into scratches produced from wiping surfaces and potentially reducing the effectiveness of disinfecting practices.

Bleach has been known to degrade polymers such as polyethylene and polystyrene due to the oxidative nature of the free radicals that are produced from dissociation. According to Mikdam et al., these free radicals can migrate into a polyethylene matrix and oxidize the material. (73) This oxidative degradation occurred in the range of 50–100 μm PE film thickness. (73) Furthermore, Kelkar et al. noted that bleach degrades polystyrene at concentrations of 75 and 150 mg min/L (typical of water disinfection and wastewater treatment). (74) However, polypropylene and HDPE were not altered at these concentrations. (74) The effects of bleach on plastics that are commonly used in households and healthcare facilities should be noted as the degradation could release polymer additives, shed microplastics into water systems, and potentially pose a concern to human health.

Decontamination of Facemasks

Another recently investigated topic among researchers is the decontamination of facemasks for reuse. One of the many consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic is the high demand for masks which inevitably caused a supply shortage in the early months of the pandemic. This has led to making homemade masks and disinfecting routines to reduce the use of disposable masks as well as increase the durability of N95 masks. Masks effective against filtering particles around 150 nm (about the size of SARS-CoV-2) are composed of meltblown polypropylene, tightly woven cotton, silk, and chiffon (90% polyester, 10% Spandex). (72,75) These materials are effective, especially when combined/layered, because they provide mechanical and electrostatic entrapment. For example, N95 masks composed of meltblown polypropylene layers have mechanical entrapment through the nonwoven fiber network layered on top of each other, while the electrostatic entrapment is achieved by charging the fibers through electrets. (72) Furthermore, a mask composed of tightly woven cotton as the outer layer could provide mechanical filtration while an inner layer of silk or chiffon would provide the electrostatic barrier. (75) Therefore, disinfection protocols should be chosen wisely as the filtration efficiency can be significantly impacted depending on the disinfectant used.

Researchers have shown that disinfection of masks with alcohol or bleach has reduced filtration efficiency. According to Liao et al. and Lin et al., the reduced filtration efficiency is due to the elimination of electrostatic charges. (22,72) An increased particle penetration up to 50 nm was observed in N95 masks due to the reduction of charge density upon treatment with alcohol or bleach. (22) Furthermore, treatment of N95 masks with alcohol and bleach revealed reduced filtration efficiencies of 56.33% and 73.11%, respectively. (72) Liao et al. hypothesized the reduction in charge density was due to small particles from the disinfectants adsorbing onto the fibers and lifting or screening the frozen electret charges. (72) Another consideration for disinfecting masks is the potential degradation of the materials. Liao et al. reported the pressure drop of the N95 masks remained unchanged, which they contributed to the hydrophobicity of polypropylene, making this polymer more resistant to degradation. (72) However, Lin et al. tested N95, a gauze mask (made of light open weave cotton fabric), and nonwoven masks against five decontamination methods to evaluate the effectiveness of those decontamination methods. The authors reported that decontamination using bleach destroyed the gauze mask. (22) Therefore, the method of mask decontamination is extremely important so the filtration efficiency and composition remain unchanged.

Although there seems to be limited information on the use of QACs for mask decontamination, the effects of QACs on mask filtration could have similar effects as alcohol and bleach. As depicted in Figure 6, the QACs could neutralize/eliminate the electrostatic charge on the mask material, thereby decreasing filtration efficiency by allowing more aerosol particles through the mask. Another possible effect could be QACs attaching themselves to cotton fiber masks. As previously discussed, cotton and QACs are not compatible for disinfecting purposes due to strong molecular interactions. As a result, efficacy could be reduced upon disinfecting masks with chemical disinfectants.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Schematic of how QACs could potentially effect filtration efficiency of masks. (a) Blocking aerosol particles by a facemask and (b) aerosol particles passing through a compromised face mask upon disinfection by QACs.

Conclusion

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The COVID-19 pandemic has called for the increase in disinfecting and cleaning practices. However, the potential side effects of disinfectants could result in repercussions to humans and the environment for years after the pandemic is over. Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), the most common disinfectant ingredients, have been detected in soil, surface water, vegetables, indoor dust particles, and human blood. QACs are toxic to aquatic environments, and these disinfectant chemicals can cause respiratory issues, adverse effects on reproductive health with reduced fertility, and neurological defects along with the inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis. Higher levels of QACs in human blood have been associated with an increase in inflammatory cytokines, decreased mitochondrial function, and disruption of cholesterol homeostasis in a dose dependent manner. Hydrogen peroxide, bleach (sodium hypochlorite), and alcohols (ethanol and isopropanol) can cause respiratory irritation upon repeated exposure.

Besides, precautions should be taken when selecting the disinfection methods on frequently touched surfaces. QACs and bleach solutions can cause physicochemical and structural changes to plastic materials, which could potentially leave room/space for bacteria and viruses (such as SARS-CoV-2) to reside without being deactivated. If used for decontaminating facemasks, QACs can strongly interact with the facemask material and could potentially lower the filtration efficiency.

The increased use of disinfectants has been essential in the battle against COVID-19. However, continuous use and overuse of these disinfectants could have short- and long-term adverse effects on human health, aquatic ecosystems, and terrestrial environments. Safer handling of these disinfectants is essential to mitigate potential adverse effects from continuous use and overuse of existing disinfectants. Enhanced monitoring methods, sustainable disinfecting techniques, effective communication of these new technologies, and a search for ecofriendly and safer alternatives are needed for human and animal welfare.

Author Information

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• • Januka Budhathoki-Uprety - Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3395-4823; Email: [email protected]

• • Hannah M. Dewey - Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States

  • Jaron M. Jones - Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States

  • Mike R. Keating - Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States

• The manuscript was written through contributions of all authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript.

• This work was supported by new faculty startup funds from Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science Department, North Carolina State University. Jaron M. Jones was supported by Research Opportunity Seed Fund (2020), Wilson College of Textiles, NCSU, and the Provost's Professional Experience Program (2020), NCSU. Mike R. Keating was supported by Office of Undergraduate Research Federal Work Study Research Assistant Program (2020), NCSU.

• The authors declare no competing financial interest.
  

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    Environmental Sciences Europe (2020), 32 (1), 35CODEN: ESENCT; ISSN:2190-4715. (Springer)

    Abstr.: Background: Co-exposure of multiple quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) is widely present in the aquatic environment. The knowledge about their toxicities to microorganism at low concn. is lacking. This study aims to test the toxic response of Vibrio qinghaiensis Q67 (12-h exposure) to individual and mixts. of QACs by the long-term microplate toxicity anal. method (L-MTA). Results: Hormetic effects were obsd. for five individual QACs at 12-h exposure of Vibrio qinghaiensis Q67. The max. stimulation effect of - 339.66% was present in the 0.00561 mol/L tetraethylammonium bromide soln. A stimulation effect (- 23.55%) was detected when each of QACs in the five-component mixt. was present at 50% effect concn. ("benefits from hazards"). In addn., significant stimulation effects (- 96.28%) were obsd. for five QACs combined at the zero-effect point concn. ("benefits from nothing"). Further, a significant stimulation effect (- 406.16%) was obsd. when each of QACs was co-exposed at its max. stimulation effect concn. This phenomenon was termed "benefits from benefits". Conclusions: The results suggest that both single and mixt. of QACs presented hormetic effects. Benefits from hazards, benefits from nothing, and benefits from benefits were obsd. for the QACs mixts.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXkvFynurs%253D&md5=54bf84abcfb900fbfe5168bed200085c

17. 17

    Larsen, S. T. ; Verder, H. ; Nielsen, G. D. Airway Effects of Inhaled Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in Mice. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2012, 110 , 537– 543,  DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2011.00851.x

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    Airway effects of inhaled quaternary ammonium compounds in mice

    Larsen, Soeren T.; Verder, Henrik; Nielsen, Gunnar D.

    Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology (2012), 110 (6), 537-543CODEN: BCPTBO; ISSN:1742-7835. (Wiley-Blackwell)

    Quaternary ammonium compds. (QAC) constitute a family of widely used chem. substances. The QAC benzalkonium chloride (BAC) has caused bronchoconstriction in human beings by poorly understood mechanisms and lung damage at high concn. as shown in a single rat study. This study evaluates acute airway effects in mice after inhalation of aerosols of the QACs, BAC, hexadecyl tri-Me ammonium bromide (HTA), cetyl pyridinium chloride (CPC) and di-Me dioctadecyl ammonium bromide (DDA). The QACs gave rise to concn.-dependent decreases in the tidal vol. (VT) and a concomitant increase in respiratory rate indicating pulmonary irritation. The potencies of the QAC to induce these effects were in the order: BAC > HTA = CPC > DDA. Furthermore, inhalation of BAC and CPC aerosols gave rise to pulmonary inflammation as apparent from bronchoalveolar lavage. Stimulation of nasal trigeminal nerve endings by QAC, which may serve as a warning signal, was absent.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XovFekt7s%253D&md5=b7d14aa51489c30c765001372cabc909

18. 18

    Dumas, O. ; Varraso, R. ; Boggs, K. M. ; Quinot, C. ; Zock, J. ; Henneberger, P. K. ; Speizer, F. E. ; Le Moual, N. ; Camargo, C. A. Association of Occupational Exposure to Disinfectants with Incidence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Among US Female Nurses. JAMA Network Open 2019, 2 , e1913563– e1913576,  DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.13563

19. 19

    Bello, A. ; Quinn, M. M. ; Perry, M. J. ; Milton, D. K. Characterization of occupational exposures to cleaning products used for common cleaning tasks-a pilot study of hospital cleaners. Environ. Health 2009, 8 , 11,  DOI: 10.1186/1476-069X-8-11

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    Characterization of occupational exposures to cleaning products used for common cleaning tasks--a pilot study of hospital cleaners

    Bello Anila; Quinn Margaret M; Perry Melissa J; Milton Donald K

    Environmental health : a global access science source (2009), 8 (), 11 ISSN:.

    BACKGROUND: In recent years, cleaning has been identified as an occupational risk because of an increased incidence of reported respiratory effects, such as asthma and asthma-like symptoms among cleaning workers. Due to the lack of systematic occupational hygiene analyses and workplace exposure data, it is not clear which cleaning-related exposures induce or aggravate asthma and other respiratory effects. Currently, there is a need for systematic evaluation of cleaning products ingredients and their exposures in the workplace. The objectives of this work were to: a) identify cleaning products' ingredients of concern with respect to respiratory and skin irritation and sensitization; and b) assess the potential for inhalation and dermal exposures to these ingredients during common cleaning tasks. METHODS: We prioritized ingredients of concern in cleaning products commonly used in several hospitals in Massachusetts. Methods included workplace interviews, reviews of product Materials Safety Data Sheets and the scientific literature on adverse health effects to humans, reviews of physico-chemical properties of cleaning ingredients, and occupational hygiene observational analyses. Furthermore, the potential for exposure in the workplace was assessed by conducting qualitative assessment of airborne exposures and semi-quantitative assessment of dermal exposures. RESULTS: Cleaning products used for common cleaning tasks were mixtures of many chemicals, including respiratory and dermal irritants and sensitizers. Examples of ingredients of concern include quaternary ammonium compounds, 2-butoxyethanol, and ethanolamines. Cleaning workers are at risk of acute and chronic inhalation exposures to volatile organic compounds (VOC) vapors and aerosols generated from product spraying, and dermal exposures mostly through hands. CONCLUSION: Cleaning products are mixtures of many chemical ingredients that may impact workers' health through air and dermal exposures. Because cleaning exposures are a function of product formulations and product application procedures, a combination of product evaluation with workplace exposure assessment is critical in developing strategies for protecting workers from cleaning hazards. Our task based assessment methods allowed classification of tasks in different exposure categories, a strategy that can be employed by epidemiological investigations related to cleaning. The methods presented here can be used by occupational and environmental health practitioners to identify intervention strategies.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1Mzit1amtg%253D%253D&md5=32e2e750fad0d0042c17a663a31fb561

20. 20

    Saito, R. ; Virji, M. A. ; Henneberger, P. K. ; Humann, M. J. ; LeBouf, R. F. ; Stanton, M. L. ; Liang, X. ; Stefaniak, A. B. Characterization of cleaning and disinfecting tasks and product use among hospital occupations. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2015, 58 , 101– 111,  DOI: 10.1002/ajim.22393

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    Characterization of cleaning and disinfecting tasks and product use among hospital occupations

    Saito Rena; Virji M Abbas; Henneberger Paul K; Humann Michael J; LeBouf Ryan F; Stanton Marcia L; Liang Xiaoming; Stefaniak Aleksandr B

    American journal of industrial medicine (2015), 58 (1), 101-11 ISSN:.

    BACKGROUND: Healthcare workers have an elevated prevalence of asthma and related symptoms associated with the use of cleaning/disinfecting products. The objective of this study was to identify and characterize cleaning/disinfecting tasks and products used among hospital occupations. METHODS: Workers from 14 occupations at five hospitals were monitored for 216 shifts, and work tasks and products used were recorded at five-minute intervals. The major chemical constituents of each product were identified from safety data sheets. RESULTS: Cleaning and disinfecting tasks were performed with a high frequency at least once per shift in many occupations. Medical equipment preparers, housekeepers, floor strippers/waxers, and endoscopy technicians spent on average 108-177 min/shift performing cleaning/disinfecting tasks. Many occupations used products containing amines and quaternary ammonium compounds for >100 min/shift. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis demonstrates that many occupations besides housekeeping incur exposures to cleaning/disinfecting products, albeit for different durations and using products containing different chemicals.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2M3jvFWitg%253D%253D&md5=81088cb4ea5ce0fc17ba5b9e708b3820

21. 21

    Engelbrecht, K. ; Ambrose, D. ; Sifuentes, L. ; Gerba, C. ; Weart, I. ; Koenig, D. Decreased activity of commercially available disinfectants containing quaternary ammonium compounds when exposed to cotton towels. Am. J. Infect. Control 2013, 41 , 908– 911,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2013.01.017

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    Decreased activity of commercially available disinfectants containing quaternary ammonium compounds when exposed to cotton towels

    Engelbrecht, Kathleen; Ambrose, Dianna; Sifuentes, Laura; Gerba, Charles; Weart, Ilona; Koenig, David

    American Journal of Infection Control (2013), 41 (10), 908-911CODEN: AJICDC; ISSN:0196-6553. (Elsevier)

    Health care-assocd. infections (HAIs) are a significant problem in hospitals, and environmental surfaces have been implicated as a source of HAIs in the hospital environment. Furthermore, Gram-neg. and Gram-pos. bacteria can persist on dry environmental surfaces for as long as several months. Poorly cleaned surfaces may serve as vehicles for microbes, which may then be transferred to patients. Cotton and microfiber towels were both tested for their abilities to bind quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs). The towels were exposed to 3 com. available disinfectants for 0.5, 30, and 180 min. Germicidal spray tests (GSTs) were performed for all towel eluates in accordance with the AOAC International method 961.02. Cotton towel eluates were analyzed for QAC concn. using high-performance liq. chromatog. QAC concns. were reduced by up to 85.3% after exposure to cotton towels, resulting in failure of the disinfectants exposed to cotton towels in 96% of the GSTs. The use of cotton towels with QAC-based cleansers should be reconsidered, particularly in hospitals where effective cleaning of the patient environment is needed to reduce the risk of HAIs.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXmvVWiu78%253D&md5=ec591f4ad270fe5336df10e4ce9cfaca

22. 22

    Lin, T. ; Chen, C. ; Huang, S. ; Kuo, C. ; Lai, C. ; Lin, W. Filter quality of electret masks in filtering 14.6–594 nm aerosol particles: Effects of five decontamination methods. PLoS One 2017, 12 , e0186217– e0186232,  DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0186217

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    Filter quality of electret masks in filtering 14.6±594 nm aerosol particles: effects of five decontamination methods

    Lin, Tzu-Hsien; Chen, Chih-Chieh; Huang, Sheng-Hsiu; Kuo, Chung-Wen; Lai, Chane-Yu; Lin, Wen-Yinn

    PLoS One (2017), 12 (10), e0186217/1-e0186217/15CODEN: POLNCL; ISSN:1932-6203. (Public Library of Science)

    This study investigates the effects of five decontamination methods on the filter quality (qf) of three com. available electret masks ETHN95, Gauze and Spunlace nonwoven masks. Newly developed evaluation methods, the overall filter quality (qf,o) and the qf ratio were applied to evaluate the effectiveness of decontamination methods for respirators. A scanning mobility particle sizer is utilized to measure the concn. of polydispersed particles with diam. 14.6-594 nm. The penetration of particles and pressure drop (Δp) through the mask are used to det. qf and qf,o. Exptl. results reveal that the most penetrating particle size (MPS) for the pre-decontaminated N95, Gauze and Spunlace masks were 118 nm, 461 nm and 279 nm, resp., and the resp. penetration rates were 2.6%, 23.2% and 70.0%. The Δp through the pretreated N95 masks was 9.2 mm H2O at the breathing flow rate of heavy-duty workers, exceeding the Δp values obtained through Gauze and Spunlace masks. Decontamination increased the sizes of the most penetrating particles, changing the qf values of all of the masks: qf fell as particle size increased because the penetration increased. Bleach increased the Δp of N95, but destroyed the Gauze mask. However, the use of an autoclave reduces the Δp values of both the N95 and the Gauze mask. Neither the rice cooker nor ethanol altered the Δp of the Gauze mask. Chem. decontamination methods reduced the qf, o values for the three electret masks. The value of qf, o for PM0.1 exceeded that for PM0.1-0.6, because particles smaller than 100 nm had lower penetration, resulting in a better qf for a given pressure drop. The values of qf,o, particularly for PM0.1, reveal that for the tested treatments and masks, phys. decontamination methods are less destructive to the filter than chem. methods. Nevertheless, when purchasing new or reusing FFRs, penetration should be regarded as the priority.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtFGmsb7O&md5=575a25e062c1d9a78fc6011fd378f2a5

23. 23

    Fu, E.; McCue, K.; Boesenberg, D. Chemical Disinfection of Hard Surfaces – Household, Industrial and Institutional Settings. In Handbook for Cleaning/decontamination of Surfaces; Somasundaran, P., Johansson, I. , Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 2007; pp 573– 590.

24. 24

    McDonnell, G. ; Russell, A. D. Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1999, 12 , 147– 179,  DOI: 10.1128/CMR.12.1.147

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    Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance

    McDonnell, Gerald; Russell, A. Denver

    Clinical Microbiology Reviews (1999), 12 (1), 147-179CODEN: CMIREX; ISSN:0893-8512. (American Society for Microbiology)

    A review with 547 refs.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1MXpvVOlsQ%253D%253D&md5=0878e303c0aa6d96fca2f597fea009f1

25. 25

    Melin, V. E. ; Melin, T. E. ; Dessify, B. J. ; Nguyen, C. T. ; Shea, C. S. ; Hrubec, T. C. Quaternary ammonium disinfectants cause subfertility in mice by targeting both male and female reproductive processes. Reprod. Toxicol. 2016, 59 , 159– 166,  DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2015.10.006

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    Quaternary ammonium disinfectants cause subfertility in mice by targeting both male and female reproductive processes

    Melin, Vanessa E.; Melin, Travis E.; Dessify, Brian J.; Nguyen, Christina T.; Shea, Caroline S.; Hrubec, Terry C.

    Reproductive Toxicology (2016), 59 (), 159-166CODEN: REPTED; ISSN:0890-6238. (Elsevier Inc.)

    Alkyl di-Me benzyl ammonium chloride (ADBAC) and didecyl di-Me ammonium chloride (DDAC) are common ingredients in household bathroom and kitchen cleaning sprays. ADBAC + DDAC cause reproductive toxicity in mice. The aim of the present study was to investigate gender-specific reproductive effects from ADBAC + DDAC. Female reprodn. was assessed through ovulation, oocyte implantation, and estrus cycling. Male reproductive function was assessed by sperm concn., motility, and viability. Nos. of corpora lutea were not different after 2 wk, but decreased after 8 wk of ADBAC + DDAC exposure. Dams exposed for 5 wk to ADBAC + DDAC spent significantly less time in estrus. ADBAC + DDAC exposed males exhibited declines in both sperm concn. and motility, but not sperm viability. Subfertility in mice from ADBAC + DDAC exposure is, therefore, mediated through reproductive disturbances in both females and males. While the effect of ADBAC + DDAC exposure on human health is unclear, widespread exposure necessitates further consideration of their potential reproductive toxicity.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XlvVGjug%253D%253D&md5=d05165f0bf9ae6780b0ec0ab7de19708

26. 26

    Ioannou, C. J. ; Hanlon, G. W. ; Denyer, S. P. Action of Disinfectant Quaternary Ammonium Compounds against Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51 , 296– 306,  DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00375-06

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    Action of disinfectant quaternary ammonium compounds against Staphylococcus aureus

    Ioannou, Christopher J.; Hanlon, Geoff W.; Denyer, Stephen P.

    Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (2007), 51 (1), 296-306CODEN: AMACCQ; ISSN:0066-4804. (American Society for Microbiology)

    Mode-of-action studies concluded that alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC) (a blend of C12, C14 and C16 alkyl homologues) and didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) are both membrane-active agents, possessing subtly different modes of action reflecting early cell interactions against Staphylococcus aureus. ADBAC and DDAC exhibited similar MIC behaviors from 0.4 ppm to 1.8 ppm over an inoculum range of 1 × 105 to 1 × 109 CFU/mL at 35°C. For ADBAC and DDAC, an increased rapidity of killing against S. aureus (final concn., 2 × 109 CFU/mL) was obsd. at 35°C compared to 25°C. Concn. exponents (η) for killing were <2.5 for both agents, and temp. influenced the η value. Examn. of leakage and kill data suggested that a single leakage marker was not indicative of cell death. ADBAC and DDAC possessed Langmuir (L4) and high-affinity (H3/4) uptake isotherms, resp. ADBAC mols. formed a single monolayer of coverage of cells at the end of primary uptake, and DDAC formed a double monolayer. Rapid cell leakage occurred at bactericidal concns., with total depletion of the intracellular potassium and 260-nm-absorbing pools released in this strict order. Autolysis was obsd. for ADBAC and DDAC at concns. of 9 μg/mL (0.0278 mM and 0.0276 mM, resp.) and above, together with the depletion of approx. 30% of the internal potassium pool. Autolysis contributed to ADBAC and DDAC lethality, although high biocide concns. may have inhibited autolytic enzyme activity.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXktVaqsg%253D%253D&md5=b423d0a62b4faeee944ae1b59d9e20db

27. 27

    Gilbert, P. ; Moore, L. E. Cationic antiseptics: diversity of action under a common epithet. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2005, 99 , 703– 715,  DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02664.x

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    Cationic antiseptics: diversity of action under a common epithet

    Gilbert, P.; Moore, L. E.

    Journal of Applied Microbiology (2005), 99 (4), 703-715CODEN: JAMIFK; ISSN:1364-5072. (Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

    A review. Cationic antimicrobials have been in general use within clin. and domestic settings for over half a century. Recently, the use of antiseptics and disinfectants has been questioned in such settings because of the possibility that chronic exposure of the environment to such agents might select for less susceptible strains towards these agents and towards third party antibiotics. While no supportive evidence has emerged from retrospective field studies of high use environments such debate has tempered new applications for these mols. In the clinic, use of antiseptics, together with products, such as dressings, catheters and sutures, which are impregnated with biocides has increased. Prominent amongst these biocides are the cationics. Much of the research pertaining to the mechanisms of action of cationic antibacterials was conducted in the 1960s and 1970s and has not been subject to extensive review. Anal. of available publications suggest that monoquaternary ammonium compds. (QAC, cetrimide, benzalkonium chloride), biquaternaries and bisbiguanides (Chlorhexidine, Barquat), and polymeric biguanides (Vantocil, Cosmocil) while having similarities in action mechanism, differ substantially in the nature of their interaction with cell envelopes. This has profound implications in terms of cross-resistance where changes in susceptibility towards QAC is not reflected in changes towards other cationics. This review examines action mechanisms for these agents and highlights key differences that render them distinct categories of antibacterial agent.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXhtFyhsr3J&md5=1e8f882f65a738e1fbdee0adc8a0fcce

28. 28

    Boyce, J. M. Alcohols as Surface Disinfectants in Healthcare Settings. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2018, 39 , 323– 328,  DOI: 10.1017/ice.2017.301

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    Alcohols as Surface Disinfectants in Healthcare Settings

    Boyce John M

    Infection control and hospital epidemiology (2018), 39 (3), 323-328 ISSN:.

    Isopropyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol have been used as low-level disinfectants in healthcare settings for many years. Recent studies have found that ethyl alcohol inhibits protein synthesis in Escherichia coli by direct effects on ribosomes and RNA polymerase and that 60%-70% solutions have in vitro efficacy against murine norovirus, Ebola virus, and several coronaviruses. Alcohol prep pads or towelettes containing isopropyl or ethyl alcohol and water have been used primarily for disinfection of small noncritical items due to a concern regarding their rapid evaporation rates and associated short contact times. Sterile alcohol solutions are used mostly for disinfection of compounding pharmacies and controlled areas. One new Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-registered cleaner/disinfectant formulation differs from other alcohol-based disinfectants by virtue of having a 30-second contact time for multiple pathogens and a toxicity rating of category IV. Multiple disinfectants containing ethyl alcohol and/or isopropyl alcohol combined with other active agents such as quaternary ammonium or phenolic compounds are widely used for disinfecting environmental surfaces in healthcare facilities. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2018;39:323-328.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1MvkslGquw%253D%253D&md5=ae2af9fd6ae3eee5507b88b33ab472ae

29. 29

    Uchida, Y. ; Shigematu, H. ; Yamafuji, K. The Mode of Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Enzymologia 1965, 29 , 369– 376

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    Mode of action of hydrogen peroxide on deoxyribonucleic acid

    Uchida, Y.; Shigematsu, H.; Yamafuji, K.

    Enzymologia (1965), 29 (6), 369-76CODEN: ENZYAS; ISSN:0013-9424.

    The action of a biol. virogen, on DNA was studied. In the DNA treated with H2O2, adenine is most stable and guanine the most unstable. Exposure of DNA to H2O2 of appropriately low concn. results in the liberation of adenine or an adenine deriv. It is, therefore, assumed that H2O2 attacks the DNA of the chromosome and may cause a virus formation in cells.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaF28XksFemsg%253D%253D&md5=a1e12a5ef7336a7c5dec385bb016a086

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    Chu, W. ; Fang, C. ; Deng, Y. ; Xu, Z. Intensified Disinfection Amid COVID-19 Pandemic Poses Potential Risks to Water Quality and Safety. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 , 4084– 4086,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c04394

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    Intensified Disinfection Amid COVID-19 Pandemic Poses Potential Risks to Water Quality and Safety

    Chu, Wenhai; Fang, Chao; Deng, Yang; Xu, Zuxin

    Environmental Science & Technology (2021), 55 (7), 4084-4086CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)

    The upsurge and overuse of chlorine-based disinfectants during the COVID-19 pandemic post a threat to ecol. and human health by impacting water quality. To mitigate high levels of chlorine and disinfection byproducts in wastewater discharges and drinking waters, various mitigation strategies should be employed simultaneously to protect water quality in these unprecedented times. Approaches include strengthened water quality monitoring for the receiving water bodies and multiple barriers for minimization of chlorine loadings to the environment from wastewater release. This calls for strong and global collaborations of industry, academia, and government.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXitFygs7bM&md5=92e68b228567bc0aa56b038b98f6b214

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    Kataki, S. ; Chatterjee, S. ; Vairale, M. G. ; Sharma, S. ; Dwivedi, S. K. Concerns and strategies for wastewater treatment during COVID-19 pandemic to stop plausible transmission. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2021, 164 , 105156– 105174,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105156

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    Concerns and strategies for wastewater treatment during COVID-19 pandemic to stop plausible transmission

    Kataki Sampriti; Chatterjee Soumya; Vairale Mohan G; Sharma Sonika; Dwivedi Sanjai K

    Resources, conservation, and recycling (2021), 164 (), 105156 ISSN:0921-3449.

    Along with outbreak of the pandemic COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2, the problem of biomedical wastewater disposal has caused widespread public concern, as reportedly the presence is confirmed in wastewater. Keeping in mind (i) available evidence indicating need to better understand potential of wastewater mediated transmission and (ii) knowledge gaps in its occurrence, viability, persistence, and inactivation in wastewater, in this present work, we wanted to re-emphasize some strategies for management of SARS-CoV-2 contaminated wastewater to minimise any possible secondary transmission to human and environment. The immediate challenges to consider while considering wastewater management are uncertainty about this new biothreat, relying on prediction based treatments options, significant population being the latent asymptomatic carrier increased risk of passing out of the virus to sewage network, inadequacy of wastewater treatment facility particularly in populated developing countries and increased generation of wastewater due to increased cleanliness concern. In absence of regulated central treatment facility, installation of decentralized wastewater treatment units with single or multiple disinfection barriers in medical units, quarantine centre, isolation wards, testing facilities seems to be urgent for minimizing any potential risk of wastewater transmission. Employing some emerging disinfectants (peracetic acid, performic acid, sodium dichloro isocyanurate, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, benzalconium chloride) shows prospects in terms of virucidal properties. However, there is need of additional research on coronaviruses specific disinfection data generation, regular monitoring of performance considering all factors influencing virus survival, performance evaluation in actual water treatment, need of augmenting disinfection dosages, environmental considerations to select the most appropriate disinfection technology.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB38botVOgtg%253D%253D&md5=63f07e77d9fe9e639d76430e628439a8

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    Wang, J. ; Shen, J. ; Ye, D. ; Yan, X. ; Zhang, Y. ; Yang, W. ; Li, X. ; Wang, J. ; Zhang, L. ; Pan, L. Disinfection technology of hospital wastes and wastewater: Suggestions for disinfection strategy during coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in China. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 262 , 114665– 114675,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114665

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    Disinfection technology of hospital wastes and wastewater: Suggestions for disinfection strategy during coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in China

    Wang, Jiao; Shen, Jin; Ye, Dan; Yan, Xu; Zhang, Yujing; Yang, Wenjing; Li, Xinwu; Wang, Junqi; Zhang, Liubo; Pan, Lijun

    Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2020), 262 (), 114665CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)

    A review. Hospitals are important sources of pollutants resulted from diagnostic, lab. and research activities as well as medicine excretion by patients, which include active component of drugs and metabolite, chems., residues of pharmaceuticals, radioactive markers, iodinated contrast media, etc. The discharge of hospital wastes and wastewater, esp. those without appropriate treatment would expose the public in danger of infection. In particular, under the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic context in China, it is of great significance to reduce the health risks to the public and environment. In this study, technologies of different types of hospital wastes and wastewater disinfection have been summarized. Liq. chlorine, sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and UV irradn. disinfection are commonly used for hospital wastewater disinfection. While incineration, chem. disinfection, and phys. disinfection are commonly used for hospital wastes disinfection. In addn., considering the characteristics of various hospital wastes, the classification and selection of corresponding disinfection technologies are discussed. On this basis, this study provides scientific suggestions for management, technol. selection, and operation of hospital wastes and wastewater disinfection in China, which is of great significance for development of national disinfection strategy for hospital wastes and wastewater during COVID-19 pandemic.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXosVSqt7k%253D&md5=6e8a6d485a5afdfe67b38fc8c8f79c7b

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    Zhang, H. ; Tang, W. ; Chen, Y. ; Yin, W. Disinfection threatens aquatic ecosystems. Science 2020, 368 , 146– 147,  DOI: 10.1126/science.abb8905

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    34

    Disinfection threatens aquatic ecosystems

    Sills, Jennifer; Zhang, Hong; Tang, Wenzhong; Chen, Yushun; Yin, Wei

    Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2020), 368 (6487), 146-147CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:1095-9203. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)

    There is no expanded citation for this reference.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXmvV2qtLc%253D&md5=36c6015e9dfa91e5069a7ba88a753339

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    Hora, P. I. ; Arnold, W. A. Photochemical fate of quaternary ammonium compounds in river water. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 2020, 22 , 1368– 1381,  DOI: 10.1039/D0EM00086H

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    35

    Photochemical fate of quaternary ammonium compounds in river water

    Hora, Priya I.; Arnold, William A.

    Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts (2020), 22 (6), 1368-1381CODEN: ESPICZ; ISSN:2050-7895. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

    Quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) are not completely removed during wastewater treatment and are frequently detected in surface waters and sediments. The photochem. transformation of QACs has not been thoroughly investigated as a potential degrdn. pathway affecting their fate in the environment. Kinetic studies of common QACs with and without arom. groups under simulated and natural sunlight conditions were performed with model sensitizers and dissolved org. matter to est. photochem. half-lives in the aquatic environment. All QACs investigated react with hydroxyl radicals at diffusion-controlled rates (∼2.9 x 109 to 1.2 x 1010 M-1 s-1). Benzethonium reacted via direct photolysis (ΦBZT,outdoor = 1.7 x 10-2 (mol Ei-1)). Benzethonium also reacted with the triplet excited state model sensitizer 2-acetylnaphthalene, but evidence suggests this reaction pathway is unimportant in natural waters due to faster quenching of the triplet 2-acetylnaphthalene by oxygen. Reactivity with singlet oxygen for the QACs was minimal. Overall, reactions with hydroxyl radicals will dominate over direct photolysis due to limited spectral overlap of sunlight emission and QAC absorbance. Photolysis half-lives are predicted to be 12 to 94 days, indicating slow abiotic degrdn. in surface water.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXntlegur4%253D&md5=582dc03e5cbaadd7385f93b243a7fcb3

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    Di Nica, V. ; Gallet, J. ; Villa, S. ; Mezzanotte, V. Toxicity of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) as single compounds and mixtures to aquatic non-target microorganisms: Experimental data and predictive models. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2017, 142 , 567– 577,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.04.028

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    36

    Toxicity of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) as single compounds and mixtures to aquatic non-target microorganisms: Experimental data and predictive models

    Di Nica, V.; Gallet, J.; Villa, S.; Mezzanotte, V.

    Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety (2017), 142 (), 567-577CODEN: EESADV; ISSN:0147-6513. (Elsevier B.V.)

    The toxic effects of five Quaternary Ammonium Compds. (QACs) that are widely used as active ingredients in personal care products were assessed using the bioluminescent bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri (formerly Vibrio fischeri) (Microtox test system). The exptl. results showed a relevant toxicity for almost all of the single QACs, with IC50 values lower than 1 mg L-1. Anal. of the mode of action through the application of the Quant. Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) models indicated an a-specific reactivity for most of the QACs toward A. fischeri. Only hexadecyl tri-Me ammonium chloride (ATMAC-16) behaved as a polar-narcotic, with a low reactivity toward the bacterial cell membrane. The concn. response curves of the different binary and multicomponent mixts. of QACs were also evaluated with respect to the predictions from the Concn. Addn. (CA) and Independent Action (IA) models. For almost all of the binary and multicomponent mixts. (7 out of 11 mixts. tested), an agreement between the exptl. and predicted ICx was obsd. and confirmed via application of the Model Deviation Ratio (MDR). In four cases, some deviations from the expected behavior were obsd. (potential antagonistic and synergistic interactions) at concns. on the order of hundreds of μg L-1, which could be of environmental concern, esp. in the case of synergistic effects. The anal. of aquatic ecotoxicity data and the few available values of the measured environmental concns. (MECs) from the literature for wastewaters and receiving waterbodies suggest that a potential risk toward aquatic life cannot be excluded.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXntlajt7o%253D&md5=93b3d01b2cae2c2338e9d2b8b796ca16

37. 37

    Christen, V. ; Faltermann, S. ; Brun, N. R. ; Kunz, P. Y. ; Fent, K. Cytotoxicity and molecular effects of biocidal disinfectants (quaternary ammonia, glutaraldehyde, poly(hexamethylene biguanide) hydrochloride PHMB) and their mixtures in vitro and in zebrafish eleuthero-embryos. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 586 , 1204– 1218,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.114

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    37

    Cytotoxicity and molecular effects of biocidal disinfectants (quaternary ammonia, glutaraldehyde, poly(hexamethylene biguanide) hydrochloride PHMB) and their mixtures in vitro and in zebrafish eleuthero-embryos

    Christen, Verena; Faltermann, Susanne; Brun, Nadja Rebecca; Kunz, Petra Y.; Fent, Karl

    Science of the Total Environment (2017), 586 (), 1204-1218CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)

    Frequently used biocidal disinfectants, including quaternary ammonium compds. (QAC), glutaraldehyde and poly(hexamethylene biguanide) hydrochloride (PHMB), occur in the aquatic environment but their potential effects in fish are poorly known, in particular when occurring as mixts. To investigate their joint activity, we assessed the cytotoxicity of three QACs (BAC, barquat and benzalkonium chloride), glutaraldehyde and PHMB by the MTT assay individually, followed by assessing binary and ternary mixts. in zebrafish liver cells (ZFL) and human liver cells (Huh7). We also analyzed mol. effects by quant. PCR in vitro and in zebrafish eleuthero-embryos employing a targeted gene expression approach. QACs displayed strong cytotoxicity in both cell lines with EC50 values in the low μg/mL range, while glutaraldehyde and PHMB were less cytotoxic. Most of the binary and both ternary mixts. showed synergistic activity at all equi-effective concns. A mixt. contg. all five compds. mixed at their no obsd. effect concns. showed strong cytotoxicity, suggesting a synergistic interaction. Addnl., we detd. transcriptional alterations of target genes related to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, general stress, inflammatory action and apoptosis. Induction of ER stress genes occurred at non-cytotoxic concns. of barquat, glutaraldehyde and BAC in ZFL cells. Barquat and BAC induced tumor necrosis factor alpha (tnf-α). Similar transcriptional alterations were found in vivo upon exposure of zebrafish eleuthero-embryos for 120 h. Glutaraldehyde led to induction of ER stress genes and tnf-α, while BAC addnl. induced genes indicative of apoptosis, which was also the case with benzalkonium chloride at the highest concn. We demonstrated strong cytotoxicity of QACs, and synergistic activity of binary, ternary and quintuple mixts. Barquat and BAC let to induction of ER stress and inflammation in vitro, and BAC and glutaraldehyde at non-toxic concns. in vivo, while benzalkonium chloride induced expression of tnf-α only.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXjsVSjuro%253D&md5=c7af326d5572b46346a4d92c1fd48aa1

38. 38

    Xiang, L. ; Wang, X. ; Li, Y. ; Huang, X. ; Wu, X. ; Zhao, H. ; Li, H. ; Cai, Q. ; Mo, C. Analysis of Trace Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) in Vegetables Using Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction and Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63 , 6689– 6697,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01828

    [ACS Full Text ], [CAS], Google Scholar

    38

    Analysis of trace quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) in vegetables using ultrasonic-assisted extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

    Xiang, Lei; Wang, Xiong-Ke; Li, Yan-Wen; Huang, Xian-Pei; Wu, Xiao-Lian; Zhao, Hai-Ming; Li, Hui; Cai, Quan-Ying; Mo, Ce-Hui

    Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2015), 63 (30), 6689-6697CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

    A reliable, sensitive, and cost-effective method was developed for detg. three quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) including dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride, cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, and didodecyldimethylammonium chloride in various vegetables using ultrasonic-assisted extn. and gas chromatog.-mass spectrometry. The variety and acidity of extn. solvents, extn. times, and cleanup efficiency of sorbents were estd. to obtain an optimized procedure for extn. of the QACs in nine vegetable matrixes. Excellent linearities (R2 > 0.992) were obtained for the analytes in the nine matrixes. The limits of detection and quantitation were 0.7-6.0 and 2.3-20.0 μg/kg (dry wt., dw) in various matrixes, resp. The recoveries in the nine matrixes ranged from 70.5% to 108.0% with relative std. deviations below 18.0%. The developed method was applied to det. the QACs in 27 vegetable samples collected from Guangzhou in southern China, showing very high detection frequency with a concn. of 23-180 μg/kg (dw).

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtFGitbjN&md5=aac590892e3ba1f36cbe89b2bb85d32d

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    Williams, M.; Kookana, R. S. Fate and Behavior of Environmental Contaminants Arising From Health-Care Provision. In Health Care and Environmental Contamination; Elsevier: Marrickville, 2018; Vol. 11, pp 21– 40;  DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63857-1.00003-6 .

40. 40

    Chhetri, R. K. ; Baun, A. ; Andersen, H. R. Algal toxicity of the alternative disinfectants performic acid (PFA), peracetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and their by-products hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and chlorite (ClO2−). Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2017, 220 , 570– 574,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.11.011

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    40

    Algal toxicity of the alternative disinfectants performic acid (PFA), peracetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and their by-products hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and chlorite (ClO-2)

    Chhetri, Ravi Kumar; Baun, Anders; Andersen, Henrik Rasmus

    International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health (2017), 220 (3), 570-574CODEN: IJEHFT; ISSN:1438-4639. (Elsevier GmbH)

    Environmental effect evaluation of disinfection of combined sewer overflow events with alternative chem. disinfectants requires that the environmental toxicity of the disinfectants and the main by products of their use are known. Many disinfectants degrade quickly in water which should be included in the evaluation of both their toxicity as detd. in standardized tests and their possible neg. effect in the water environment. Here we evaluated according to the standardized ISO 8692 test the toxicity towards the green microalgae, Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, of three disinfectants: performic acid (PFA), peracetic acid (PAA) and chlorine dioxide (ClO2) as well as two byproducts of their use: hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and chlorite. All of the five chems. investigated showed clear toxicity to the algae with well-defined dose response curves. The EC50 values ranged from 0.16 to 2.9 mg/L based on nominal concns. leading to the labeling of the chems. as either toxic or very toxic. The five investigated chems. decreased in toxicity in the order chlorine dioxide, performic acid, peracetic acid, chlorite and hydrogen peroxide. The stability of the chems. increased in the same order as the toxicity decrease. This indicates that even though ClO2 has the highest environmental hazard potential, it may still be suitable as an alternative disinfectant due to its rapid degrdn. in water.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitVyrtbrI&md5=8714262d71618a4196a91d88077d2fdd

41. 41

    Emmanuel, E. ; Keck, G. ; Blanchard, J. ; Vermande, P. ; Perrodin, Y. Toxicological effects of disinfections using sodium hypochlorite on aquatic organisms and its contribution to AOX formation in hospital wastewater. Environ. Int. 2004, 30 , 891– 900,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2004.02.004

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    41

    Toxicological effects of disinfections using sodium hypochlorite on aquatic organisms and its contribution to AOX formation in hospital wastewater

    Emmanuel, Evens; Keck, Gerard; Blanchard, Jean-Marie; Vermande, Paul; Perrodin, Yves

    Environment International (2004), 30 (7), 891-900CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier)

    Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is often used for disinfecting hospital wastewater in order to prevent the spread of pathogenic microorganisms, causal agents of nosocomial infectious diseases. Chlorine disinfectants in wastewater react with org. matters, giving rise to org. chlorine compds. such as AOX (halogenated org. compds. adsorbable on activated carbon), which are toxic for aquatic organisms and are persistent environmental contaminants. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity on aquatic organisms of hospital wastewater from services using NaOCl in pre-chlorination. Wastewater samples from the infectious and tropical diseases department of a hospital of a large city in southeast of France were collected. Three samples per day were collected in the connecting well department at 9 a.m., 1 p.m. and 5 p.m. during 8 days from 13 Mar. to 22 Mar. 2001, and a mixt. was made at 6 p.m. with the three samples in order to obtain a representative sample for the day. The toxicity test comprised the 24-h EC50 on Daphnia magna and a bioluminescence assay using Vibrio fischeri photobacteria. Fecal coliforms and physicochem. analyses such as total org. carbon (TOC), chloride, AOX, total suspended solids (TSS) and COD were carried out. Wastewater samples highlighted considerable acute toxicity on D. magna and V. fischeri photobacteria. However, low most probable nos. (MPN), ranging from <3 to 2400 for 100 mL, were detected for fecal coliforms. Statistical anal., with a confidence interval of 95%, gave a strong linear regression assessed with r=0.98 between AOX concns. and EC50 (TU) on daphnia. The identification of an ideal concn. of NaOCl in disinfecting hospital wastewater, i.e. its non-obsd. effect concn. (NOEC) on algae and D. magna, seems to be a research issue that could facilitate the control of AOX toxicity effects on aquatic organisms. Therefore, it would be necessary to monitor the biocide properties of NaOCl on fecal coliforms at various doses and its toxicity effects on aquatic organisms.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXkvFWgur4%253D&md5=46bfff7cf4d23d4d736a87418b7da036

42. 42

    Li, D. ; Sangion, A. ; Li, L. Evaluating consumer exposure to disinfecting chemicals against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and associated health risks. Environ. Int. 2020, 145 , 106108– 106120,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106108

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    42

    Evaluating consumer exposure to disinfecting chemicals against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and associated health risks

    Li, Dingsheng; Sangion, Alessandro; Li, Li

    Environment International (2020), 145 (), 106108CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier Ltd.)

    Disinfection of surfaces has been recommended as one of the most effective ways to combat the spread of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, overexposure to disinfecting chems. may lead to unintended human health risks. Here, using an indoor fate and chem. exposure model, we est. human exposure to 22 disinfecting chems. on the lists recommended by various governmental agencies against COVID-19, resulting from contact with disinfected surfaces and handwashing. Three near-field exposure routes, i.e., mouthing-mediated oral ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption, are considered to calc. the whole-body uptake doses and blood concns. caused by single use per day for three age groups (3, 14, and 24-yr-old). We also assess the health risks by comparing the predicted whole-body uptake doses with in vivo toxicol. data and the predicted blood concns. with in vitro bioactivity data. Our results indicate that both the total exposure and relative contribution of each exposure route vary considerably among the disinfecting chems. due to their diverse physicochem. properties. 3-yr-old children have consistent higher exposure than other age groups, esp. in the scenario of contact with disinfected surfaces, due to their more frequent hand contact and mouthing activities. Due to the short duration of handwashing, we do not expect any health risk from the use of disinfecting chems. in handwashing. In contrast, exposure from contact with disinfected surfaces may result in health risks for certain age groups esp. children, even the surfaces are disinfected once a day. Interestingly, risk assessments based on whole-body uptake doses and in vivo toxicol. data tend to give higher risk ests. than do those based on blood concns. and in vitro bioactivity data. Our results reveal the most important exposure routes for disinfecting chems. used in the indoor environment; they also highlight the need for more accurate data for both chem. properties and toxicity to better understand the risks assocd. with the increased use of disinfecting chems. in the pandemic.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhvVKgsL3J&md5=23e4c587697a97bc7b96a5b6e41e79e3

43. 43

    Li, Z. ; Song, G. ; Bi, Y. ; Gao, W. ; He, A. ; Lu, Y. ; Wang, Y. ; Jiang, G. Occurrence and Distribution of Disinfection Byproducts in Domestic Wastewater Effluent, Tap Water, and Surface Water during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 , 4103– 4114,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06856

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    43

    Occurrence and Distribution of Disinfection Byproducts in Domestic Wastewater Effluent, Tap Water, and Surface Water during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in China

    Li, Zhigang; Song, Gaofei; Bi, Yonghong; Gao, Wei; He, Anen; Lu, Yao; Wang, Yawei; Jiang, Guibin

    Environmental Science & Technology (2021), 55 (7), 4103-4114CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)

    A review. Intensified efforts to curb transmission of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 might lead to an elevated concn. of disinfectants in domestic wastewater and drinking water in China, possibly resulting in the generation of numerous toxic disinfection byproducts (DBPs). In this study, the occurrence and distribution of five categories of DBPs, including six trihalomethanes (THMs), nine haloacetic acids (HAAs), two haloketones, nine nitrosamines, and nine arom. halogenated DBPs, in domestic wastewater effluent, tap water, and surface water were investigated. The results showed that the total concn. level of measured DBPs in wastewater effluents (78.3μg/L) was higher than that in tap water (56.0μg/L, p = 0.05), followed by surface water (8.0μg/L, p < 0.01). Moreover, HAAs and THMs were the two most dominant categories of DBPs in wastewater effluents, tap water, and surface water, accounting for >90%, resp. Out of the regulated DBPs, none of the wastewater effluents and tap water samples exceeded the corresponding max. guideline values of chloroform (300μg/L), THM4 (80μg/L), NDMA (100 ng/L), and only 2 of 35 tap water samples (67.6 and 63.3μg/L) exceeded the HAA5 (60μg/L) safe limit. HAAs in wastewater effluents showed higher values of risk quotient for green algae. This study illustrates that the elevated use of disinfectants within the guidance ranges during water disinfection did not result in a significant increase in the concn. of DBPs.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXisVWgur0%253D&md5=49887f1769bbc31c76580ae6d2c65fac

44. 44

    Chang, A.; Schnall, A. H.; Law, R. ; . Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Cleaning and Disinfectant Chemical Exposures and Temporal Associations with COVID-19 — National Poison Data System. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6916e1.htm (accessed May 19, 2021).

45. 45

    Mattila, J. M. ; Lakey, P. S. J. ; Shiraiwa, M. ; Wang, C. ; Abbatt, J. P. D. ; Arata, C. ; Goldstein, A. H. ; Ampollini, L. ; Katz, E. F. ; Decarlo, P. F. ; Zhou, S. ; Kahan, T. F. ; Cardoso-Saldaña, F. J. ; Ruiz, L. H. ; Abeleira, A. ; Boedicker, E. K. ; Vance, M. E. ; Farmer, D. K. Multiphase Chemistry Controls Inorganic Chlorinated and Nitrogenated Compounds in Indoor Air during Bleach Cleaning. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54 , 1730– 1739,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05767

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    45

    Multiphase Chemistry Controls Inorganic Chlorinated and Nitrogenated Compounds in Indoor Air during Bleach Cleaning

    Mattila, James M.; Lakey, Pascale S. J.; Shiraiwa, Manabu; Wang, Chen; Abbatt, Jonathan P. D.; Arata, Caleb; Goldstein, Allen H.; Ampollini, Laura; Katz, Erin F.; De Carlo, Peter F.; Zhou, Shan; Kahan, Tara F.; Cardoso-Saldana, Felipe J.; Ruiz, Lea Hildebrandt; Abeleira, Andrew; Boedicker, Erin K.; Vance, Marina E.; Farmer, Delphine K.

    Environmental Science & Technology (2020), 54 (3), 1730-1739CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)

    Elevated concns. of gaseous inorg. chlorinated and nitrogenous compds. in indoor air while cleaning with a com. bleach soln. during the House Observations of Microbial and Environmental Chem. field campaign in summer 2018 are reported. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), Cl2, and nitryl chloride (ClNO2) reached ppbv concns. indoors during bleach cleaning; several orders of magnitude higher than typically measured in the outdoor atm. Kinetic modeling showed multi-phase chem. plays a central role in controlling indoor Cl2 and reactive N chem. during these periods. Cl2 prodn. occurred by heterogeneous reactions of HOCl on indoor surfaces. ClNO2 and chloramine (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3) prodn. occurred in the applied bleach by aq. reactions involving NO2- and NH3, resp. Aq.-phase and surface chem. resulted in elevated concns. of gaseous NO2. The authors predicted OH- and Cl radical prodn. during these periods (106 and 107 mols./cm3-s, resp.), driven by HOCl and Cl2 photolysis. Ventilation and photolysis accounted for <50% and <0.1% total loss of bleach-related compds. from indoor air, resp. It was concluded that uptake by indoor surfaces in an important addnl. loss process. Indoor HOCl and NCl3 mixing ratios during bleach cleaning are likely detrimental to human health.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhtVGgsbk%253D&md5=5377c801d26a4e5c201a6c10bace72eb

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    Ha, Y. ; Kim, Y. ; Song, E. ; Yoo, H. J. ; Kwon, J. Development of a personal passive air sampler for estimating exposure to effective chlorine while using chlorine-based disinfectants. Indoor Air 2021, 31 , 557– 565,  DOI: 10.1111/ina.12747

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    46

    Development of a personal passive air sampler for estimating exposure to effective chlorine while using chlorine-based disinfectants

    Ha Yeonjeong; Kim Yoonsub; Kwon Jung-Hwan; Song Eugene; Yoo Hyun Jung

    Indoor air (2021), 31 (2), 557-565 ISSN:.

    With an increasing use of indoor disinfectants such as chlorine (Cl2 ) and hypochlorous acid, a convenient sampler for estimating exposure to oxidants, such as effective chlorine, is necessary. Here, we developed a personal passive air sampler (PPAS) composed of a redox dye, o-dianisidine, in a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) sheet. o-Dianisidine readily reacts with gaseous oxidants generated by bleach usage, and its color changes as the reaction progresses; hence, personal exposure to effective chlorine could be easily detected by the naked eye, while cumulative exposure could be determined by measuring concentrations of o-dianisidine reacting with it. The PPAS was calibrated, and a sampling rate of 0.00253 m(3) /h was obtained using a small test chamber. The PPAS was tested with the help of ten volunteers whose personal exposure to Cl2 -equivalent gas was estimated after bathrooms were cleaned using spray and liquid-type household disinfection products, and the accumulated exposure-gas concentrations ranged from 69 to 408 ppbv and 148 to 435 ppbv, respectively. These PPAS-derived exposure concentrations were approximately two orders lower than those estimated using ConsExpo, suggesting a significant overestimation by prevailing screening models, possibly due to the ignorance of transformation reactions.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3s%252FjslCgsw%253D%253D&md5=7a969534e11ebd60d67442d7a009bcb4

48. 48

    Maier, A. ; Ovesen, J. L. ; Allen, C. L. ; York, R. G. ; Gadagbui, B. K. ; Kirman, C. R. ; Poet, T. ; Quiñones-Rivera, A. Safety assessment for ethanol-based topical antiseptic use by health care workers: Evaluation of developmental toxicity potential. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2015, 73 , 248– 264,  DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.07.015

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    48

    Safety assessment for ethanol-based topical antiseptic use by health care workers: Evaluation of developmental toxicity potential

    Maier, Andrew; Ovesen, Jerald L.; Allen, Casey L.; York, Raymond G.; Gadagbui, Bernard K.; Kirman, Christopher R.; Poet, Torka; Quinones-Rivera, Antonio

    Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology (2015), 73 (1), 248-264CODEN: RTOPDW; ISSN:0273-2300. (Elsevier Inc.)

    Ethanol-based topical antiseptic hand rubs, commonly referred to as alc.-based hand sanitizers (ABHS), are routinely used as the std. of care to reduce the presence of viable bacteria on the skin and are an important element of infection control procedures in the healthcare industry. There are no reported indications of safety concerns assocd. with the use of these products in the workplace. However, the prevalence of such alc.-based products in healthcare facilities and safety questions raised by the U. S. FDA led us to assess the potential for developmental toxicity under relevant product-use scenarios. Ests. from a physiol. based pharmacokinetic modeling approach suggest that occupational use of alc.-based topical antiseptics in the healthcare industry can generate low, detectable concns. of ethanol in blood. This unintended systemic dose probably reflects contributions from both dermal absorption and inhalation of volatilized product. The resulting internal dose is low, even under hypothetical, worst case intensive use assumptions. A significant margin of exposure (MOE) exists compared to demonstrated effect levels for developmental toxicity under worst case use scenarios, and the MOE is even more significant for typical anticipated occupational use patterns. The estd. internal doses of ethanol from topical application of alc.-based hand sanitizers are also in the range of those assocd. with consumption of non-alc. beverages (i.e., non-alc. beer, flavored water, and orange juice), which are considered safe for consumers. Addnl., the estd. internal doses assocd. with expected exposure scenarios are below or in the range of the expected internal doses assocd. with the current occupational exposure limit for ethanol set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. These results support the conclusion that there is no significant risk of developmental or reproductive toxicity from repeated occupational exposures and high frequency use of ABHSs or surgical scrubs. Overall, the data support the conclusion that alc.-based hand sanitizer products are safe for their intended use in hand hygiene as a crit. infection prevention strategy in healthcare settings.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXht1Kls73N&md5=dbe9d7676c88396f939cc1fcebedf2dd

49. 49

    Pires, D. ; Bellissimo-Rodrigues, F. ; Pittet, D. Bellissimo-Rodrigues, Fernando; Pittet, Didier, Ethanol-based handrubs: Safe for patients and health care workers. Am. J. Infect. Control 2016, 44 , 858– 859,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2016.02.016

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    49

    Ethanol-based handrubs: Safe for patients and health care workers

    Pires Daniela; Bellissimo-Rodrigues Fernando; Pittet Didier

    American journal of infection control (2016), 44 (8), 858-9 ISSN:.

    There is no expanded citation for this reference.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC28bhtFaltQ%253D%253D&md5=3221ad6921592f1ea6b1c44e5a6ebab6

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    Herron, J. ; Reese, R. C. ; Tallman, K. A. ; Narayanaswamy, R. ; Porter, N. A. ; Xu, L. Identification of Environmental Quaternary Ammonium Compounds as Direct Inhibitors of Cholesterol Biosynthesis. Toxicol. Sci. 2016, 151 , 261– 270,  DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw041

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    Identification of environmental quaternary ammonium compounds as direct inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis

    Herron, Josi; Reese, Rosalyn C.; Tallman, Keri A.; Narayanaswamy, Rohini; Porter, Ned A.; Xu, Libin

    Toxicological Sciences (2016), 151 (2), 261-270CODEN: TOSCF2; ISSN:1096-0929. (Oxford University Press)

    In this study, we aim to identify environmental mols. that can inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis, potentially leading to the same biochem. defects as obsd. in cholesterol biosynthesis disorders, which are often characterized by congenital malformations and developmental delay. Using the Distributed Structure-Searchable Toxicity (DSSTox) Database Network developed by EPA, we first carried out in silico screening of environmental mols. that display structures similar to AY9944, a known potent inhibitor of 3β-hydroxysterol-Δ7-reductase (DHCR7)-the last step of cholesterol biosynthesis. Mols. that display high similarity to AY9944 were subjected to test in mouse and human neuroblastoma cells for their effectiveness in inhibiting cholesterol biosynthesis by analyzing cholesterol and its precursor using gas chromatog.-mass spectrometry. We found that a common disinfectant mixt., benzalkonium chlorides (BACs), exhibits high potency in inhibiting DHCR7, as suggested by greatly elevated levels of the cholesterol precursor, 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC). Subsequent structure-activity studies suggested that the potency of BACs as Dhcr7 inhibitors decrease with the length of their hydrocarbon chain: C10>C12»C14>C16. Real-time qPCR anal. revealed upregulation of the genes related to cholesterol biosynthesis and downregulation of the genes related to cholesterol efflux, suggesting a feedback response to the inhibition. Furthermore, an oxidative metabolite of 7-DHC that was previously identified as a biomarker in vivo was also found in cells exposed to BACs by liq. chromatog.-mass spectrometry. Our findings suggest that certain environmental mols. could potently inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis, which could be a new link between environment and developmental disorders.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsFeitrnK&md5=d4c162c3260a61a08beb340e13508435

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    Hrubec, T. C. ; Seguin, R. P. ; Xu, L. ; Cortopassi, G. A. ; Datta, S. ; Hanlon, A. L. ; Lozano, A. J. ; McDonald, V. A. ; Healy, C. A. ; Anderson, T. C. ; Musse, N. A. ; Williams, R. T. Altered toxicological endpoints in humans from common quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant exposure. Toxicology Reports 2021, 8 , 646– 656,  DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.03.006

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    51

    Altered toxicological endpoints in humans from common quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant exposure

    Hrubec, Terry C.; Seguin, Ryan P.; Xu, Libin; Cortopassi, Gino A.; Datta, Sandipan; Hanlon, Alexandra L.; Lozano, Alicia J.; McDonald, Valerie A.; Healy, Claire A.; Anderson, Tyler C.; Musse, Najaha A.; Williams, Richard T.

    Toxicology Reports (2021), 8 (), 646-656CODEN: TROEF9; ISSN:2214-7500. (Elsevier B.V.)

    Humans are frequently exposed to Quaternary Ammonium Compds. (QACs). QACs are ubiquitously used in medical settings, restaurants, and homes as cleaners and disinfectants. Despite their prevalence, nothing is known about the health effects assocd. with chronic low-level exposure. Chronic QAC toxicity, only recently identified in mice, resulted in developmental, reproductive, and immune dysfunction. Cell based studies indicate increased inflammation, decreased mitochondrial function, and disruption of cholesterol synthesis. If these findings translate to human toxicity, multiple physiol. processes could be affected. This study tested whether QAC concns. could be detected in the blood of 43 human volunteers, and whether QAC concns. influenced markers of inflammation, mitochondrial function, and cholesterol synthesis. QAC concns. were detected in 80% of study participants. Blood QACs were assocd. with increase in inflammatory cytokines, decreased mitochondrial function, and disruption of cholesterol homeostasis in a dose dependent manner. This is the first study to measure QACs in human blood, and also the first to demonstrate statistically significant relationships between blood QAC and meaningful health related biomarkers. Addnl., the results are timely in light of the increased QAC disinfectant exposure occurring due to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. This study found that 80% of study participants contained QACs in their blood; and that markers of inflammation, mitochondrial function, and sterol homeostasis varied with blood QAC concn.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtVOmurjO&md5=3ce457d528fb10a3e58e84aaecfce8ad

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    Dumas, O. ; Wiley, A. S. ; Quinot, C. ; Varraso, R. ; Zock, J. ; Henneberger, P. K. ; Speizer, F. E. ; Le Moual, N. ; Camargo, C. A. Occupational exposure to disinfectants and asthma control in U.S. nurses. Eur. Respir. J. 2017, 50 , 1700237– 1700247,  DOI: 10.1183/13993003.00237-2017

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    Occupational exposure to disinfectants and asthma control in US nurses

    Dumas, Orianne; Wiley, Aleta S.; Quinot, Catherine; Varraso, Raphaeelle; Zock, Jan-Paul; Henneberger, Paul K.; Speizer, Frank E.; Le Moual, Nicole; Camargo, Carlos A. Jr

    European Respiratory Journal (2017), 50 (4), 1700237/1-1700237/10CODEN: ERJOEI; ISSN:1399-3003. (European Respiratory Society)

    Disinfectant use has been assocd. with adverse respiratory effects among health-care workers. However, the specific harmful agents have not been elucidated. We examd. the assocn. between occupational exposure to disinfectants and asthma control in the Nurses' Health Study II, a large cohort of female nurses. Nurses with asthma were invited in 2014 to complete two questionnaires on their current occupation and asthma (response rate 80%). Asthma control was defined by the Asthma Control Test (ACT). Exposure to major disinfectants was evaluated by a job-task-exposure matrix (JTEM). Analyses included 4102 nurses with asthma (mean age 58 years). Asthma control was poor (ACT score 16-19) in 12% of nurses and very poor (ACT score ≤15) in 6% of nurses. Use of disinfectants to clean medical instruments 19% exposed was assocd. with poorly OR 1.37; 95% CI 1.05-1.79 and very poorly OR 1.88, 95% CI 1.38-2.56 controlled asthma trend=0.004, after adjustment for potential confounders. Using JTEM ests., exposure to formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, hypochlorite bleach, hydrogen peroxide and enzymic cleaners was assocd. with poor asthma control (all ptrend<0.05); exposure to quaternary ammonium compds. and alc. was not. Use of several disinfectants was assocd. with poor asthma control. Our findings suggest targets for future efforts to prevent worsening of asthma control in health-care workers.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXitVOqs77M&md5=62b13157b89c99c3a26d9d02d82c6d5c

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    Holm, S. M. ; Leonard, V. ; Durrani, T. ; Miller, M. D. Do we know how best to disinfect child care sites in the United States? A review of available disinfectant efficacy data and health risks of the major disinfectant classes. Am. J. Infect. Control 2019, 47 , 82– 91,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2018.06.013

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    53

    Do we know how best to disinfect child care sites in the United States? A review of available disinfectant efficacy data and health risks of the major disinfectant classes

    Holm Stephanie M; Leonard Victoria; Durrani Timur; Miller Mark D

    American journal of infection control (2019), 47 (1), 82-91 ISSN:.

    BACKGROUND: Children in child care settings have a high infectious burden. They are frequently exposed to sanitizing and disinfecting agents, whose toxicities have not been studied in these settings. Current guidance on the preferred disinfection agents for child care is vague. METHODS: This article combines 2 different sources of information: the Environmental Protection Agency registration data on the efficacy of hospital-grade disinfectants and a review of the research on the toxicities of the most common of these disinfectants to summarize information that could be used for more evidence-based early care and education disinfection regulations and guidelines. RESULTS: Coverage of these organisms varied both between disinfectant classes (defined by active ingredient), as well as within classes. The 3 most common active ingredients in the database-quaternary ammonias, bleaches, and hydrogen peroxides-had 251, 63, and 31 products, respectively. Quaternary ammonias and bleaches are both known asthmagens, with the potential for toxic gas release when mixed. Quaternary ammonias may also cause reproductive toxicity. Disinfectant-grade peroxides have relatively low inhalational toxicity. CONCLUSIONS: A clear rationale is needed to establish policies for determining preferable disinfection products for use in child care settings, based on efficacy against relevant pathogens, toxicity, ease of use, and cost. When other factors are equal, the use of peroxide-based disinfectant products is recommended to minimize inhalational toxicity.

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    Mucci, N. ; Dugheri, S. ; Bonari, A. ; Farioli, A. ; Rapisarda, V. ; Garzaro, G. ; Cappelli, G. ; Arcangeli, G. Health risk assessment related to hydrogen peroxide presence in the workplace atmosphere - analytical methods evaluation for an innovative monitoring protocol. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 2020, 33 , 137– 150,  DOI: 10.13075/ijomeh.1896.01508

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    56

    Health risk assessment related to hydrogen peroxide presence in the workplace atmosphere - analytical methods evaluation for an innovative monitoring protocol

    Mucci Nicola; Cappelli Giovanni; Arcangeli Giulio; Dugheri Stefano; Bonari Alessandro; Farioli Andrea; Rapisarda Venerando; Garzaro Giacomo

    International journal of occupational medicine and environmental health (2020), 33 (2), 137-150 ISSN:.

    OBJECTIVES: Hydrogen peroxide (HP) accounts for 15% of the total global chemical revenue. According to the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, the HP concentration immediately dangerous to human life or health is 75 ppm. Operators exposed to HP should pay attention when choosing the monitoring technique that should be specific and sensitive enough to discriminate the exposure levels from background concentrations. In order to assess the long- and short-term exposure to HP in disinfection processes, the authors compared 6 industrial hygiene monitoring methods to evaluate their efficiency in measuring airborne HP concentrations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Airborne HP concentrations were evaluated using an on-fiber triphenylphosphine solid-phase microextraction method, and they were compared with those obtained using a 13-mm Swinnex titanium oxysulfate filter holder and 4 portable direct-reading electrochemical sensors. A survey carried out in wood pulp bleaching, food and beverage disinfection processing, and in a hospital department to reduce the risk of spreading nosocomial infections, was performed during routine operations to access the risk of HP occupational exposure. RESULTS: Through the generation of HP gaseous dynamic atmospheres (0.1-85 ppm), the authors evaluated the consistency of the results obtained using the 6 methods described. The monitoring campaigns showed that the increase in HP could be relatively high (until 67 ppm) in food and beverage processing. CONCLUSIONS: In the authors' opinion, the current 8-h time-weighted average limits of 1 ppm for HP do not reflect the actual risk; a short-term exposure limit would, therefore, provide a much better protection. 2020;33(2):137-50.

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    Slaughter, R. J. ; Mason, R. W. ; Beasley, D. M. G. ; Vale, J. A. ; Schep, L. J. Isopropanol poisoning. Clin. Toxicol. 2014, 52 , 470– 478,  DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2014.914527

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    Isopropanol poisoning

    Slaughter R J; Mason R W; Beasley D M G; Vale J A; Schep L J

    Clinical toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) (2014), 52 (5), 470-8 ISSN:.

    INTRODUCTION: Isopropanol is a clear, colorless liquid with a fruity odor and a mild bitter taste. Most commonly found domestically as rubbing alcohol, isopropanol is also found in numerous household and commercial products including cleaners, disinfectants, antifreezes, cosmetics, solvents, inks, and pharmaceuticals. AIM: The aim of this review is to critically review the epidemiology, toxicokinetics, mechanisms of toxicity, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of isopropanol poisoning. METHODS: OVID MEDLINE and ISI Web of Science were searched to November 2013 using the words "isopropanol", "isopropyl alcohol", "2-propanol", "propan-2-ol", and "rubbing alcohol" combined with the keywords "poisoning", "poison", "toxicity", "ingestion", "adverse effects", "overdose", or "intoxication". These searches identified 232 citations, which were then screened via their abstract to identify relevant articles referring specifically to the epidemiology, toxicokinetics, mechanisms of toxicity, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of isopropanol poisoning; 102 were relevant. Further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports, and internet resources. These additional searches produced eight non-duplicate relevant citations. EPIDEMIOLOGY: The majority of isopropanol exposures are unintentional and occur in children less than 6 years of age. Although isopropanol poisoning appears to be a reasonably common occurrence, deaths are rare. TOXICOKINETICS: Isopropanol is rapidly absorbed following ingestion with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 30 min. It can also be absorbed following inhalation or dermal exposure. Isopropanol is widely distributed with a volume of distribution of 0.45-0.55 L/kg. Isopropanol is metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase to acetone, acetol and methylglyoxal, propylene glycol, acetate, and formate with conversion of these metabolites to glucose and other products of intermediary metabolism. The elimination of isopropanol is predominantly renal, though some pulmonary excretion of isopropanol and acetone occurs. In one case 20% of the absorbed dose was eliminated unchanged in urine, with the remainder excreted as acetone and metabolites of acetone. The elimination half-life of isopropanol is between 2.5 and 8.0 h, whereas elimination of acetone is slower with a half-life following isopropanol ingestion of between 7.7 and 27 h. MECHANISMS OF TOXICITY: While the exact mechanism of action of isopropanol has not been fully elucidated, brain stem depression is thought to be the predominant mechanism. While the clinical effects are thought to be mostly due to isopropanol, acetone may also contribute. CLINICAL FEATURES: The major features of severe poisoning are due to CNS and respiratory depression, shock, and circulatory collapse. The most common metabolic effects are an increased osmol (osmolal) gap, ketonemia, and ketonuria. Diagnosis. Poisoning can be diagnosed using the measurement of isopropanol serum concentrations, though these may not be readily available. Diagnosis is therefore more typically made on the basis of the patient's history and clinical presentation. An osmol gap, ketonemia, and/or ketonuria without metabolic acidosis, along with a fruity or sweet odor on the breath and CNS depression support the diagnosis. Management. Supportive care is the mainstay of management with primary emphasis on respiratory and cardiovascular support. Hemodialysis enhances elimination of isopropanol and acetone and should be considered in very severe poisoning. CONCLUSIONS: Severe isopropanol poisoning results in CNS and respiratory depression and circulatory collapse. Treatment primarily consists of symptom-directed supportive care. Although hemodialysis increases the elimination of isopropanol and acetone substantially, it should only be considered in severe life-threatening poisonings. Patients usually make a full recovery provided they receive prompt supportive care.

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    Boyacı, E. ; Pawliszyn, J. Micelle Assisted Thin-Film Solid Phase Microextraction: A New Approach for Determination of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in Environmental Samples. Anal. Chem. 2014, 86 , 8916– 8921,  DOI: 10.1021/ac5015673

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    Micelle Assisted Thin-Film Solid Phase Microextraction: A New Approach for Determination of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in Environmental Samples

    Boyaci, Ezel; Pawliszyn, Janusz

    Analytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) (2014), 86 (18), 8916-8921CODEN: ANCHAM; ISSN:0003-2700. (American Chemical Society)

    Detn. of quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) often is considered to be a challenging undertaking owing to secondary interactions of the analytes' permanently charged quaternary ammonium head or hydrophobic tail with the used labware. Here, for the 1st time, a micelle assisted thin-film solid phase microextn. (TF-SPME) using a zwitterionic detergent 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS) as a matrix modifier is introduced as an approach for in-lab. sample prepn. of the challenging compds. The proposed micelle assisted TF-SPME method offers suppression/enhancement free electrospray ionization of analytes in mass spectrometric detection, minimal interaction of the micelles with the TF-SPME coating, and chromatog. stationary phase and anal. free of secondary interactions. Also, the matrix modifier has multiple functions; when its concn. is found below the crit. micelle concn. (CMC), the matrix modifier primarily acts as a surface deactivator; above its CMC, it acts as a stabilizer for QACs. Addnl., shorter equil. extn. times in the presence of the modifier demonstrated that micelles also assist in the transfer of analytes from the bulk of the sample to the surface of the coating. The developed micelle assisted TF-SPME protocol using the 96-blade system requires only 30 min of extn. and 15 min of desorption. Together with a conditioning step (15 min), the entire method is 60 min; considering the advantage of using the 96-blade system, if all the blades in the brush were used, the sample prepn. time per sample is 0.63 min. Also, the recoveries for all analytes with the developed method range within 80.2-97.3%; as such, this method can be considered an open bed solid phase extn. The proposed method was successfully validated using real samples.

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    Wee, V. T. ; Kennedy, J. M. Determination of Trace Levels of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in River Water by Liquid Chromatography with Conductometric Detection. Anal. Chem. 1982, 54 , 1631– 1633,  DOI: 10.1021/ac00246a037

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    Determination of trace levels of quaternary ammonium compounds in river water by liquid chromatography with conductometric detection

    Wee, Victorio T.; Kennedy, Julie M.

    Analytical Chemistry (1982), 54 (9), 1631-3CODEN: ANCHAM; ISSN:0003-2700.

    An anal. method was developed for isolation and concn. of trace levels of long-chain alkyl quaternary ammonium compds. from river water. The extd. quaternary ammonium compds. are sepd. and quantified by the use of high-performance liq. chromatog. with a cond. detector. The unique feature of this method is the chromatog. system. For the 1st time, non-UV absorbing long-chain alkyl quaternaries are detd. in submicrogram quantities without any form of derivatization. In addn., ion chromatog. is performed in a nonaq. medium, without ion pairing, and in the absence of a suppressor column. The new method was used to det. 2 non-UV absorbing quaternaries, ditallowdimethylammonium chloride and dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride [112-00-5], and 2 UV-absorbing quaternaries, stearyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride [122-19-0] and 1-hexadecylpyridinium chloride [123-03-5], in several river waters.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaL38XksVeqtbY%253D&md5=861cf4b7dd5e886740bfd516d2e2f759

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    LeBouf, R. F. ; Virji, M. A. ; Ranpara, A. ; Stefaniak, A. B. Air and surface sampling method for assessing exposures to quaternary ammonium compounds using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Annals of Work Exposures and Health 2017, 61 , 724– 736,  DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxx037

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    Air and surface sampling method for assessing exposures to quaternary ammonium compounds using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

    LeBouf, Ryan F.; Virji, Mohammed Abbas; Ranpara, Anand; Stefaniak, Aleksandr B.

    Annals of Work Exposures and Health (2017), 61 (6), 724-736CODEN: AWEHAR; ISSN:2398-7316. (Oxford University Press)

    This method was designed for sampling select quaternary ammonium (quat) compds. in air or on surfaces followed by anal. using ultraperformance liq. chromatog. tandem mass spectrometry. Target quats were benzethonium chloride, didecyldimethylammonium bromide, benzyldimethyldodecylammonium chloride, benzyldimethyltetradecylammonium chloride, and benzyldimethylhexadecylammonium chloride. For air sampling, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) filters are recommended for 15-min to 24-h sampling. For surface sampling, Pro-wipe 880 (PW) media was chosen. Samples were extd. in 60:40 acetonitrile:0.1% formic acid for 1 h on an orbital shaker. Method detection limits range from 0.3 to 2 ng/mL depending on media and analyte. Matrix effects of media are minimized through the use of multiple reaction monitoring vs. selected ion recording. Upper confidence limits on accuracy meet the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 25% criterion for PTFE and PW media for all analytes. Using PTFE and PW analyzed with multiple reaction monitoring, the method quantifies levels among the different quats compds. with high precision (<10% relative std. deviation) and low bias (<11%). The method is sensitive enough with very low method detection limits to capture quats on air sampling filters with only a 15-min sample duration with a max. assessed storage time of 103 days before sample extn. This method will support future exposure assessment and quant. epidemiol. studies to explore exposure-response relationships and establish levels of quats exposures assocd. with adverse health effects.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXjtlKmtL8%253D&md5=88c30b79fff4cabf2e3c4df35ae4380b

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    Serra-Mora, P. ; Muñoz-Ortuño, M. ; Gallego-Prieto, P. ; Verdú-Andrés, J. ; Herráez-Hernández, R. ; Campíns-Falcó, P. Cotton swabs supported in-situ assay for quaternary ammonium compounds residues in effluents and surfaces. Food Control 2018, 84 , 419– 428,  DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.08.026

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    Cotton swabs supported in-situ assay for quaternary ammonium compounds residues in effluents and surfaces

    Serra-Mora, P.; Munoz-Ortuno, M.; Gallego-Prieto, P.; Verdu-Andres, J.; Herraez-Hernandez, R.; Campins-Falco, P.

    Food Control (2018), 84 (), 419-428CODEN: FOOCEV; ISSN:0956-7135. (Elsevier Ltd.)

    Cellulose paper and cotton swabs have been tested as sampling, reaction and measurement media for quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) using the reagent Chromo Azurol S in the presence of aluminum cations (CAS-Al). On the basis of the results obtained a new method is proposed for the anal. of QACs in water samples which only entails the successive immersion of swabs into 1 mL of the samples, 1 mL of a soln. of CAS-Al for the formation of a ternary blue complex, and 1 mL of water to remove the excess of reagent. The method can be used for the visual on site detection of QACs in effluents, as well as for their quantification within the 3.62-36.2 mg/L range through the direct measurement of the reflectance diffuse of the cotton tips. The proposed approach has been validated for the identification and quantification of QACs in water, and applied to effluents generated by the dairy industry. Moreover, the proposed methodol. can be also adapted to the on-site detection of residues of QACs in surfaces at sub μg/cm2 levels.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsV2rsbjJ&md5=8df521bdb3e63c94570721709f0cf629

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    Balz, E.; Smith, K.; Olson, E.; Tischler, S. U.S. Patent 10,514,367 B2, 2019.

63. 63

    Simons, A. K. ; Handy, R. G. ; Sleeth, D. K. ; Pahler, L. F. ; Thiese, M. S. A comparison study between passive and active workplace personal air monitoring techniques for airborne isopropyl alcohol concentrations. J. Chem. Health Saf. 2017, 24 , 36– 43,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jchas.2017.05.002

64. 64

    Ghimenti, S. ; Tabucchi, S. ; Bellagambi, F. G. ; Lomonaco, T. ; Onor, M. ; Trivella, M. G. ; Fuoco, R. ; Di Francesco, F. Determination of sevoflurane and isopropyl alcohol in exhaled breath by thermal desorption gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for exposure assessment of hospital staff. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2015, 106 , 218– 223,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2014.11.052

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    Determination of sevoflurane and isopropyl alcohol in exhaled breath by thermal desorption gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for exposure assessment of hospital staff

    Ghimenti, Silvia; Tabucchi, Sara; Bellagambi, Francesca G.; Lomonaco, Tommaso; Onor, Massimo; Trivella, Maria Giovanna; Fuoco, Roger; Di Francesco, Fabio

    Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis (2015), 106 (), 218-223CODEN: JPBADA; ISSN:0731-7085. (Elsevier B.V.)

    Volatile anesthetics and disinfection chems. pose ubiquitous inhalation and dermal exposure risks in hospital and clinic environments. This work demonstrated a specific, non-invasive breath biomonitoring method to assess worker exposure to sevoflurane (SEV) anesthetic, documenting its metabolite, hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP), and measuring exposures to isopropanol (IPA) dermal disinfection fluid. Methods were based on breath sample collection in Nalophan bags, followed by aliquot transfer to an adsorption tube, and thermal desorption/gas chromatog./mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS) anal. Ambient IPA concns. were also monitored. These methods could be generalized to other common volatile chems. in medical environments. Calibration curves were linear (r2 = 0.999) in the studied ranges: 0.01-1000 ppbv for SEV, 0.02-1700 ppbv for IPA, and 0.001-0.1 ppbv for HFIP. Instrument detection limits were 10 pptv for IPA and 5 pptv for SEV, both estd. by extd. ion-TIC chromatograms; the HFIP min. detectable concn. was 0.5 pptv, estd. in selected ion monitoring acquisition mode. Methods were applied to hospital operating room and blood draw clinic workers. SEV and HFIP occurred in all workers at concns. of 0.7-18 and 0.002-0.024 ppbv for SEV and HFIP, resp. A correlation between IPA ambient air and breath concns. confirmed the inhalation exposure pathway (r = 0.95, p <0.001); breath-borne IPA was measured as high as 1500 ppbv. The method is easy to implement and valuable for screening exposure to common hospital chems. Although the documented overall exposures were generally below health concern levels in this limited study, outliers were obsd. which indicated acute exposure potential.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXlvFOmtA%253D%253D&md5=8dbd4ef8870ff571322dc108d4338312

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    Hecht, G. ; Héry, M. ; Hubert, G. ; Subra, I. Simultaneous sampling of peroxyacetic acid and hydrogen peroxide in workplace atmospheres. Annals of Occupational Hygiene 2004, 48 , 715– 721,  DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/meh067

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    Simultaneous sampling of peroxyacetic acid and hydrogen peroxide in workplace atmospheres

    Hecht, G.; Hery, M.; Hubert, G.; Subra, I.

    Annals of Occupational Hygiene (2004), 48 (8), 715-721CODEN: AOHYA3; ISSN:0003-4878. (Oxford University Press)

    The use of peroxyacetic acid (PAA) in the disinfection processes in the food industry or for medical purposes is increasing. As it is the product of the reaction of HOAc (AA) and H2O2 (HP) and coexists with them, and given the fact that the chem. properties of these two substances are not very different from PAA, the sampling and anal. of this substance in working atms. is difficult. A specific sampling device was developed. It is composed of: (i) a cassette with quartz fiber filters impregnated with Ti oxysulfate hydrate for the sampling of HP followed by; (ii) a tube filled with silica gel soaked with Me p-tolylsulfoxide for the sampling of PAA. The anal. of this silica gel was performed by liq. chromatog. with UV detection of the Me p-sulfone generated by the sampling of PAA. The conservation of the sampling media (before and after sampling) and its efficiency were also checked. From the results of sampling campaigns performed in various workplaces, the relative contributions of PAA, AA and HP to an exposure index, taking into account the atm. concns. and the threshold limit values, were established. This calcn. shows that the simultaneous detn. of PAA and HP, which the method presented in this paper allows, provides a fairly good estn. of the exposure.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXhtFSgtbjP&md5=bfb09525b8f79cfb3fae9d88004842b4

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    Xiao, J. ; Wang, M. ; Pang, Z. ; Dai, L. ; Lu, J. ; Zou, J. Simultaneous spectrophotometric determination of peracetic acid and the coexistent hydrogen peroxide using potassium iodide as the indicator. Anal. Methods 2019, 11 , 1930– 1938,  DOI: 10.1039/C8AY02772B

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    Simultaneous spectrophotometric determination of peracetic acid and the coexistent hydrogen peroxide using potassium iodide as the indicator

    Xiao, Junyang; Wang, Mengyun; Pang, Zijun; Dai, Lin; Lu, Jinfeng; Zou, Jing

    Analytical Methods (2019), 11 (14), 1930-1938CODEN: AMNEGX; ISSN:1759-9679. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

    Recently, increasing attention has been paid for using com. peracetic acid (PAA) soln. as an efficient disinfectant or a strong oxidant in water treatment. Simultaneous detn. of PAA and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is vital because PAA soln. is commonly available as a mixed soln. contg. the peroxides PAA and H2O2. In this study, a simple, rapid and reliable spectrophotometric method for the simultaneous detn. of PAA and H2O2 was developed. This method was based on the rapid oxidn. of excess potassium iodide by PAA and H2O2 in the presence of ammonium molybdate to yield yellow-colored triiodide ions (I3-) that could be quant. measured using an UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The absorption of generated I3- at 350 nm increased linearly (R2 > 0.999) with the concns. of total peroxides and PAA in the range of 0-70 μM. The sensitivities were resp. measured to be as high as 2.596 × 104 M-1 cm-1 for total peroxides and 2.616 × 104 M-1 cm-1 for PAA, while the corresponding limits of detection were calcd. to be as low as 0.19 μM and 0.18 μM. The concn. of the H2O2 coexisting in PAA soln. was obtained by subtracting the concn. of PAA from the concn. of total peroxides. The concns. of total peroxides, PAA and H2O2 in practical water samples measured with this proposed method were in good agreement with the values measured with the earlier reported spectrophotometric method using N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine as the indicator. Therefore, this proposed spectrophotometric method could be considered as an alternative method for the simultaneous detn. of PAA and H2O2 coexisting in PAA soln.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXks1eltLw%253D&md5=7bda7cd59b51605cea9be0233571763a

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    Boyce, J. M. ; Sullivan, L. ; Booker, A. ; Baker, J. Quaternary Ammonium Disinfectant Issues Encountered in an Environmental Services Department. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2016, 37 , 340– 342,  DOI: 10.1017/ice.2015.299

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    Quaternary Ammonium Disinfectant Issues Encountered in an Environmental Services Department

    Boyce John M; Sullivan Linda; Booker Arica; Baker James

    Infection control and hospital epidemiology (2016), 37 (3), 340-2 ISSN:.

    We identified several factors affecting the use of quaternary ammonium-based (Quat) disinfectant in our facility. Microfiber wipers, cotton towels, and 1 of 2 types of disposable wipes soaked in a Quat disinfectant revealed significant binding of the disinfectant. Concentrations of Quat delivered by automated disinfectant dispensers varied widely.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC28nkvFanug%253D%253D&md5=91bdb9babf272491b394ac2844c5b94c

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    Weber, D. J. ; Rutala, W. A. ; Sickbert-Bennett, E. E. Outbreaks associated with contaminated antiseptics and disinfectants. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51 , 4217– 4224,  DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00138-07

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    Outbreaks associated with contaminated antiseptics and disinfectants

    Weber, David J.; Rutala, William A.; Sickbert-Bennett, Emily E.

    Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (2007), 51 (12), 4217-4224CODEN: AMACCQ; ISSN:0066-4804. (American Society for Microbiology)

    A review on nosocomial outbreaks assocd. with the use of a microbiol. germicide and focuses on the currently recommended germicides.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXhsVWisLbO&md5=d89d5461684a5349e9d55f396f27c8a1

69. 69

    Hinchliffe, D. J. ; Condon, B. D. ; Slopek, R. P. ; Reynolds, M. The adsorption of alkyl-dimethyl-benzyl-ammonium chloride onto cotton nonwoven hydroentangled substrates at the solid–liquid interface is minimized by additive chemistries. Text. Res. J. 2017, 87 , 70– 80,  DOI: 10.1177/0040517515622154

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    The adsorption of alkyl-dimethylbenzyl- ammonium chloride onto cotton nonwoven hydroentangled substrates at the solid-liquid interface is minimized by additive chemistries

    Hinchliffe, Doug J.; Condon, Brian D.; Slopek, Ryan P.; Reynolds, Michael

    Textile Research Journal (2017), 87 (1), 70-80CODEN: TRJOA9; ISSN:0040-5175. (Sage Publications Ltd.)

    Quaternary ammonium compds., commonly referred to as quats, are cationic surfactants widely used as the active biocidal ingredient for disposable disinfecting wipes. The cationic nature of quats results in a strong ionic interaction and adsorption onto wipes materials that have an anionic surface charge, such as cellulosic materials, including cotton. The degree of adsorption of quats onto cotton nonwovens is affected by pretreatment of the substrate, more specifically whether it is a greige or a scoured and bleached fabric. This study examd. the effect of varying the chem. and phys. properties of solns. on the adsorption of the quat alkyl-dimethyl-benzyl-ammonium chloride (ADBAC) onto greige and scoured and bleached cotton nonwoven fabrics produced by hydroentanglement. At a const. surfactant concn., the liquor ratio, pH, temp., and concns. of various electrolytes in the soln. were varied and the amt. of ADBAC depleted from soln. was detd. over time. The results suggested that a more alk. soln. increased the amt. of ADBAC adsorbed onto both cotton nonwoven fabrics, while a more acidic soln. reduced ADBAC adsorption. Likewise, increasing the temp. and concn. of salts in the soln. reduced the adsorption of ADBAC onto the cotton fabrics. The presence of nonionic surfactants or low mol. wt. quats also reduced ADBAC adsorption onto cotton fabrics in a concn.-dependent manner. The results of this study will provide guidance for optimized chem. formulations compatible with disposable disinfecting cotton-based wipes, cloths, and other cotton-contg. implements intended for use in cleaning and disinfecting applications.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXktFWrtrk%253D&md5=cd4b51bfd02da70cf1e98f4e6e75e0ce

70. 70

    Hinchliffe, D. J. ; Condon, B. D. ; Madison, C. A. ; Reynolds, M. ; Hron, R. J. An optimized co-formulation minimized quaternary ammonium compounds adsorption onto raw cotton disposable disinfecting wipes and maintained efficacy against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Text. Res. J. 2018, 88 , 2329– 2338,  DOI: 10.1177/0040517517720505

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    An optimized co-formulation minimized quaternary ammonium compounds adsorption onto raw cotton disposable disinfecting wipes and maintained efficacy against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

    Hinchliffe, D. J.; Condon, B. D.; Madison, C. A.; Reynolds, M.; Hron, R. J.

    Textile Research Journal (2018), 88 (20), 2329-2338CODEN: TRJOA9; ISSN:0040-5175. (Sage Publications Ltd.)

    The transmission of infectious agents can occur through secondary routes by contact with contaminated inanimate objects in clin. and food service settings. Effective disinfection of exposed surfaces can aid in reducing secondary transmission of infectious agents. Quaternary ammonium compds. (quats) are biocides widely used as active ingredients in disinfecting solns. and are effective against a wide range of microorganisms, including those with antibiotic resistance. Cellulosic fibers such as cotton are desirable as disposable substrates for the application of disinfecting solns., since they have good absorbency and cleaning properties and are sustainable and biodegradable. However, cotton fibers deplete quats from soln. through strong ionic interactions at the solid-liq. interface, thereby reducing the amt. of quat deposited onto a surface for effective disinfection. In this study, we used response surface methodol. to model the depletion of the quat, alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC), onto cotton wipe substrates in the presence of chem. compds. that interfered or competed with the ionic interactions between the quat and the cotton fiber surface. Preliminary efficacy testing successfully demonstrated that an optimized disinfecting ADBAC co-formulation applied with a raw cotton disposable wipe maintained efficacy against representative gram neg. (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and gram pos. (Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria compared to a control disinfecting soln. contg. only ADBAC. Our optimized disinfecting ADBAC co-formulation remained efficacious against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, demonstrating for the first time that quat adsorption onto cotton substrates can be minimized and efficacy maintained with inexpensive added chemistries.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhvV2jtrfM&md5=3170bfb107ab6a75daaeff8d3b1aab67

71. 71

    Jo, H. ; West, A. M. ; Teska, P. J. ; Oliver, H. F. ; Howarter, J. A. Assessment of early onset surface damage from accelerated disinfection protocol. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control 2019, 8 , 24– 34,  DOI: 10.1186/s13756-019-0467-9

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    Assessment of early onset surface damage from accelerated disinfection protocol

    Jo Hyungyung; Howarter John A; West Alyssa M; Oliver Haley F; Teska Peter J; Howarter John A

    Antimicrobial resistance and infection control (2019), 8 (), 24 ISSN:.

    Background: The objective of this study was to evaluate the extent and potential mechanisms of early onset surface damage from simulated wiping typical of six-months of routine disinfection and to assess the subsequent microbial risk of surfaces damaged by disinfectants. Methods: Eight common material surfaces were exposed to three disinfectants and a neutral cleaner (neutral cleaner, quaternary ammonium, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite) in accelerated aging tests to simulate a long-term disinfection routine. Materials were also immersed in dilute and concentrated chemical solutions to induce surface damage. Surfaces were chemically and physically characterized to determine extent of surface damage. Bactericidal efficacy testing was performed on the Quat-based disinfectant using a modified version of EPA standard operating procedure MB-25-02. Results: The wiping protocol increased surface roughness for some material surfaces due to mechanical abrasion of the wiping cloth. The increased roughness did not correlate with changes in bactericidal efficacy. Chemical damage was observed for some surface-disinfectant combinations. The greatest observed effects from disinfectant exposure was in changes in wettability or water contact angle. Conclusions: Early onset surface damage was observed in chemical and physical characterization methods. These high-throughput material measurement methods were effective at assessing nanoscale disinfectant-surface compatibility which may go undetected though routine macroscale testing.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3cfgsVCntg%253D%253D&md5=83ba3a62b75e7ee8b30a096673f3516f

72. 72

    Liao, L. ; Xiao, W. ; Zhao, M. ; Yu, X. ; Wang, H. ; Wang, Q. ; Chu, S. ; Cui, Y. Can N95 Respirators Be Reused after Disinfection? How Many Times?. ACS Nano 2020, 14 , 6348– 6356,  DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03597

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    Can N95 Respirators Be Reused after Disinfection? How Many Times?

    Liao, Lei; Xiao, Wang; Zhao, Mervin; Yu, Xuanze; Wang, Haotian; Wang, Qiqi; Chu, Steven; Cui, Yi

    ACS Nano (2020), 14 (5), 6348-6356CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)

    The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to a major shortage of N95 respirators, which are essential for protecting healthcare professionals and the general public who may come into contact with the virus. Thus, it is essential to det. how we can reuse respirators and other personal protective equipment in these urgent times. We investigated multiple commonly used disinfection schemes on media with particle filtration efficiency of 95%. Heating was recently found to inactivate the virus in soln. within 5 min at 70°C and is among the most scalable, user-friendly methods for viral disinfection. We found that heat (≤85°C) under various humidities (≤100% relative humidity, RH) was the most promising, nondestructive method for the preservation of filtration properties in meltblown fabrics as well as N95-grade respirators. At 85°C, 30% RH, we were able to perform 50 cycles of heat treatment without significant changes in the filtration efficiency. At low humidity or dry conditions, temps. up to 100°C were not found to alter the filtration efficiency significantly within 20 cycles of treatment. UV irradn. was a secondary choice, which was able to withstand 10 cycles of treatment and showed small degrdn. by 20 cycles. However, UV can potentially impact the material strength and subsequent sealing of respirators. Finally, treatments involving liqs. and vapors require caution, as steam, alc., and household bleach all may lead to degrdn. of the filtration efficiency, leaving the user vulnerable to the viral aerosols.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXosVCmt7o%253D&md5=5fc1b3a9b67826faa66784801f5cf1d8

73. 73

    Mikdam, A. ; Colin, X. ; Minard, G. ; Billon, N. ; Maurin, R. A kinetic model for predicting the oxidative degradation of additive free polyethylene in bleach desinfected water. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2017, 146 , 78– 94,  DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2017.09.020

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    A kinetic model for predicting the oxidative degradation of additive free polyethylene in bleach desinfected water

    Mikdam, Aicha; Colin, Xavier; Minard, Gaelle; Billon, Noelle; Maurin, Romain

    Polymer Degradation and Stability (2017), 146 (), 78-94CODEN: PDSTDW; ISSN:0141-3910. (Elsevier Ltd.)

    The chem. interactions between additive free PE and bleach were investigated by FTIR spectrophotometry and viscosimetry in molten state after immersion (for a max. duration of one hundred days) in bleach solns. maintained at a temp. of 60 °C, a free chlorine concn. of 100 ppm, and a pH = 4, 5 or 7. It was found that the polymer undergoes a severe oxidn. from the earliest days of exposure in a superficial layer of about 50-100 μm thick, almost independent of the pH value. In this layer, oxidn. leads to the formation and accumulation of various carbonyl products (mostly ketones and carboxylic acids) but also, after about 2-3 wk of exposure, to a dramatic decrease in the av. molar mass due to the large predominance of chain scissions over crosslinking. It was also found that the oxidn. rate is max. at pH = 5, and of the same order of magnitude at pH = 4 and 7. Based on the equil. diagram giving access to the relative predominance of the three main chem. species as a function of the pH value of the bleach soln., it was assumed that oxidn. is initiated by radical species coming firstly from hypochlorous acid (ClOH) and secondarily from chlorine (Cl2), given that hypochlorite ions (ClO-) are totally insol. into the PE matrix. In addn., for explaining the surprisingly large value of the oxidized layer thickness despite the high reactivity of the involved radicals, it was assumed that ClOH and Cl2 do not decomp. into radicals in the water phase, but migrate deeply into the PE matrix prior to dissocg. into Cl· and HO· radicals and then, initiating a radical chain oxidn. The validity of the kinetic model derived from this scenario was successfully checked by comparing the numerical simulations with all the exptl. data collected in this study. This model predicts the general trends of the oxidn. kinetics and its dependence on the pH value, but also gives access to the transport properties of the chlorinated disinfectants and their radical species, and the rate consts. of the radical attack.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhs1ChsbjK&md5=087dd0f7b7e9b8ac05c7917cb0f5826c

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    Kelkar, V. P. ; Rolsky, C. B. ; Pant, A. ; Green, M. D. ; Tongay, S. ; Halden, R. U. Chemical and physical changes of microplastics during sterilization by chlorination. Water Res. 2019, 163 , 114871– 114877,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.114871

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    Chemical and physical changes of microplastics during sterilization by chlorination

    Kelkar, Varun P.; Rolsky, Charles B.; Pant, Anupum; Green, Matthew D.; Tongay, Sefaattin; Halden, Rolf U.

    Water Research (2019), 163 (), 114871CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)

    Wastewater treatment plants are known to release microplastics that have been detected in aquatic and terrestrial organisms constituting part of the human diet. Chlorination of wastewater-borne microplastics was hypothesized to induce chem. and phys. changes detectable by Raman spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). In the lab., virgin plastics (∼0.05 × 2 × 2 mm) were exposed to differing sterilization conditions representative of dosages used in the disinfection of drinking water, wastewater, and heavily contaminated surfaces. Polypropylene (PP) was most resistant to chlorination, followed by high d. polyethylene (HDPE) and polystyrene (PS). Polystyrene showed degrdn., indicated by changes in Raman peak widths, at concn.-time regimes (CT values) as low as 75 mg min/L, whereas HDPE and PP remained unaltered even at chlorine doses characteristic of wastewater disinfection (150 mg min/L). However, HDPE and PS were not completely resistant to oxidative attack by chlorination. Under extremely harsh conditions, shifts in Raman peaks and the formation of new bonds were obsd. These results show that plastics commonly used in consumer products can be chem. altered, some even under conditions prevailing during wastewater treatment. Changes in polymer properties, obsd. for HDPE and PP under extreme exposure conditions only, are predicted to alter the risk microplastics pose to aquatic and terrestrial biota, since an increase in carbon-chlorine (C-Cl) bonds is known to increase toxicity, rendering the polymers more hydrophobic and thus more prone to adsorb, accumulate, and transport harmful persistent pollutants to biota in both aquatic and terrestrial environments.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhsVeksbrE&md5=c4e8136a3d3d694dca5b907c304fbac5

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    Konda, A. ; Prakash, A. ; Moss, G. A. ; Schmoldt, M. ; Grant, G. D. ; Guha, S. Aerosol Filtration Efficiency of Common Fabrics Used in Respiratory Cloth Masks. ACS Nano 2020, 14 , 6339– 6347,  DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03252

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    75

    Aerosol Filtration Efficiency of Common Fabrics Used in Respiratory Cloth Masks

    Konda, Abhiteja; Prakash, Abhinav; Moss, Gregory A.; Schmoldt, Michael; Grant, Gregory D.; Guha, Supratik

    ACS Nano (2020), 14 (5), 6339-6347CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)

    The emergence of a pandemic affecting the respiratory system can result in a significant demand for face masks. This includes the use of cloth masks by large sections of the public, as can be seen during the current global spread of COVID-19. However, there is limited knowledge available on the performance of various commonly available fabrics used in cloth masks. Importantly, there is a need to evaluate filtration efficiencies as a function of aerosol particulate sizes in the 10 nm to 10μm range, which is particularly relevant for respiratory virus transmission. We have carried out these studies for several common fabrics including cotton, silk, chiffon, flannel, various synthetics, and their combinations. Although the filtration efficiencies for various fabrics when a single layer was used ranged from 5 to 80% and 5 to 95% for particle sizes of <300 nm and >300 nm, resp., the efficiencies improved when multiple layers were used and when using a specific combination of different fabrics. Filtration efficiencies of the hybrids (such as cotton-silk, cotton-chiffon, cotton-flannel) was >80% (for particles <300 nm) and >90% (for particles >300 nm). We speculate that the enhanced performance of the hybrids is likely due to the combined effect of mech. and electrostatic-based filtration. Cotton, the most widely used material for cloth masks performs better at higher weave densities (i.e., thread count) and can make a significant difference in filtration efficiencies. Our studies also imply that gaps (as caused by an improper fit of the mask) can result in over a 60% decrease in the filtration efficiency, implying the need for future cloth mask design studies to take into account issues of "fit" and leakage, while allowing the exhaled air to vent efficiently. Overall, we find that combinations of various commonly available fabrics used in cloth masks can potentially provide significant protection against the transmission of aerosol particles.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXnslChsr4%253D&md5=961b798525395cbb0bc53e325418e39d

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• Figures
• References

• Abstract

  

  Figure 1

  

  Figure 1. Reprinted with permission from ref (27). Copyright 2005 John Wiley and Sons. Schematic illustrating the mode of action of QACs on a cell with increased exposure/concentration (a–f). The alkyl chains of the QAC wedge themselves into the phospholipid bilayer, creating hydrophilic voids and disrupting the cell membrane. This leads to altering protein function and eventual cell lysis with phospholipids and proteins solubilizing into micelles. The inset micrograph shows vesicle formation on the outer membrane caused by QACs. (27)

  Figure 2

  

  Figure 2. Diagram of target cell components for disinfectants.

  Figure 3

  

  Figure 3. Diagram of major pathways for environmental fate of QACs. R1, R2, R3, and R4 represent substituents attached to quaternary nitrogen, and X^– represents a halide counterion.

  Figure 4

  

  Figure 4. Schematic of potential respiratory damage from inhalation of toxic gases released when bleach and other cleaning agents are mixed.

  Figure 5

  

  Figure 5. Schematic of two common methods for the detection of QACs: (a) conventional analysis in fruits/vegetables, dust particulates, and aqueous environments and (b) colorimetric rapid test.

  Figure 6

  

  Figure 6. Schematic of how QACs could potentially effect filtration efficiency of masks. (a) Blocking aerosol particles by a facemask and (b) aerosol particles passing through a compromised face mask upon disinfection by QACs.

• This article references 75 other publications.

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     Environmental Science & Technology Letters (2020), 7 (10), 760-765CODEN: ESTLCU; ISSN:2328-8930. (American Chemical Society)

     Quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs or "quats") make up a class of chems. used as disinfectants in cleaning and other consumer products. While disinfection is recommended for maintaining a safe environment during the COVID-19 pandemic, the increased use of QACs is concerning as exposure to these compds. has been assocd. with adverse effects on reproductive and respiratory systems. We have detd. the occurrence of 19 QACs in residential dust collected before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. QACs were detected in >90% of the samples collected during the pandemic at concns. ranging from 1.95 to 531μg/g (n = 40; median of 58.9μg/g). The total QAC concns. in these samples were significantly higher than in samples collected before the COVID-19 pandemic (p < 0.05; n = 21; median of 36.3μg/g). Higher QAC concns. were found in households that generally disinfected more frequently (p < 0.05). Disinfecting products commonly used in these homes were analyzed, and the QAC profiles in dust and in products were similar, suggesting that these products can be a significant source of QACs. Our findings indicate that indoor exposure to QACs is widespread and has increased during the pandemic.

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     Environmental Science & Technology Letters (2020), 7 (9), 622-631CODEN: ESTLCU; ISSN:2328-8930. (American Chemical Society)

     Quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) are active ingredients in over 200 disinfectants currently recommended by the U.S. EPA for use to inactivate the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus. The amts. of these compds. used in household, workplace, and industry settings has very likely increased, and usage will continue to be elevated given the scope of the pandemic. QACs have been previously detected in wastewater, surface waters, and sediments, and effects on antibiotic resistance have been explored. Thus, it is important to assess potential environmental and engineering impacts of elevated QAC usage, which may include disruption of wastewater treatment unit operations, proliferation of antibiotic resistance, formation of nitrosamine disinfection byproducts, and impacts on biota in surface waters. The threat caused by COVID-19 is clear, and a reasonable response is elevated use of QACs to mitigate spread of infection. Exploration of potential effects, environmental fate, and technologies to minimize environmental releases of QACs, however, is warranted.

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     Purohit, A.; Kopferschmitt-Kubler, M.-C.; Moreau, C.; Popin, E.; Blaumeiser, M.; Pauli, G.

     International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health (2000), 73 (6), 423-427CODEN: IAEHDW; ISSN:0340-0131. (Springer-Verlag)

     Objective: Quaternary ammonium compds., among which benzalkonium chloride is one of the best-known, are commonly used as antiseptics, disinfectants, detergents and preservatives. They can cause occupational asthma, which however, has been rarely reported so far, despite wide use of these products. We report three such cases. Possible mechanisms causing asthma are discussed, taking into account their characteristics. Methods and results: Our patients, all female nurses, manifested asthma symptoms upon handling disinfectant solns. contg. benzalkonium chloride. Work-related fall in PEFR was obsd. in all of them. The diagnosis was confirmed by challenge tests where the patients were exposed, in a closed chamber, to suspected disinfectant contained in a tray. All of the women developed early or delayed symptoms upon exposure. Similar challenge tests to placebo or other disinfectants devoid of quaternary ammonium compd. were neg. Conclusion: These three cases, in addn. to others reported in the literature, point out an as yet poorly known etiol. of occupational asthma to quaternary ammonium compds. in hospital employees. The exact mechanism of the action remains unexplained.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3cXlsVKqt7g%253D&md5=faf63e6a669c0480065addf4ab2fccfa

  8. 8

     Jiao, Y. ; Niu, L. ; Ma, S. ; Li, J. ; Tay, F. R. ; Chen, J. Quaternary ammonium-based biomedical materials: State-of-the-art, toxicological aspects and antimicrobial resistance. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2017, 71 , 53– 90,  DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2017.03.001

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     8

     Quaternary ammonium-based biomedical materials: State-of-the-art, toxicological aspects and antimicrobial resistance

     Jiao, Yang; Niu, Li-na; Ma, Sai; Li, Jing; Tay, Franklin R.; Chen, Ji-hua

     Progress in Polymer Science (2017), 71 (), 53-90CODEN: PRPSB8; ISSN:0079-6700. (Elsevier Ltd.)

     Microbial infections affect humans worldwide. Many quaternary ammonium compds. have been synthesized that are not only antibacterial, but also possess antifungal, antiviral and anti-matrix metalloproteinase capabilities. Incorporation of quaternary ammonium moieties into polymers represents one of the most promising strategies for prepn. of antimicrobial biomaterials. Various polymn. techniques have been employed to prep. antimicrobial surfaces with quaternary ammonium functionalities; in particular, syntheses involving controlled radical polymn. techniques enable precise control over macromol. structure, order and functionality. Although recent publications report exciting advances in the biomedical field, some of these technol. developments have also been accompanied by potential toxicol. and antimicrobial resistance challenges. Recent evidenced-based data on the biomedical applications of antimicrobial quaternary ammonium-contg. biomaterials that are based on randomized human clin. trials, the golden std. in contemporary medicinal science, are included in the present review. This should help increase visibility, stimulate debates and spur conversations within a wider scientific community on the implications and plausibility for future developments of quaternary ammonium-based antimicrobial biomaterials.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXks1Sis7s%253D&md5=8a2dba5e23a307a0fce5e74434fd7fd6

  9. 9

     Gilbert, P. ; Al-Taae, A. Antimicrobial activity of some alkyltrimethylammonium bromides. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 1985, 1 , 101– 104,  DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765X.1985.tb01498.x

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     9

     Antimicrobial activity of some alkyltrimethylammonium bromides

     Gilbert, P.; Al-Taae, A.

     Letters in Applied Microbiology (1985), 1 (6), 101-4CODEN: LAMIE7; ISSN:0266-8254.

     n-Alkyltrimethylammonium bromides were synthesized with n-alkyl chain lengths of C5-C22. Antimicrobial activity was assessed as growth inhibitory activity toward 7 representative strains of microorganisms and as bactericidal activity to Staphylococcus aureus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. While the level of activity was generally parabolically related to alkyl chain length, sep. dependencies existed for short (n <10) and long (n >10) chain substituents, with disproportionately large increases in activity, in the order of 3 log cycles, occurring as substituent chain lengths increased from n = 10 to n = 12. This is interpreted in terms of distinct mechanisms of action, binding site and(or) physicochem. properties for extreme members of the series.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaL28XhtVKjt78%253D&md5=aedbe16257f3401b9c2c561a190045b5

  10. 10

      Wessels, S. ; Ingmer, H. Modes of action of three disinfectant active substances: A review. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2013, 67 , 456– 467,  DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2013.09.006

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      10

      Modes of action of three disinfectant active substances: A review

      Wessels, Stephen; Ingmer, Hanne

      Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology (2013), 67 (3), 456-467CODEN: RTOPDW; ISSN:0273-2300. (Elsevier Inc.)

      This review deals with three categories of active substances for disinfectant products, their modes of action (MOA), and how MOA can help predict propensity for resistance in microorganisms. Within the European Union applications for approval of disinfectants of all kinds must be submitted in a few years, and documentation on MOA and resistance must be part of those applications. Peracetic acid is an unspecific, pervasive oxidizer of C-C double bonds and reduced atoms. This MOA would imply poor chance for development of resistance in microorganisms, as borne out by the absence of such reports in the literature. The quaternary ammonium compds. (QAC's) are much more specific in their antimicrobial mechanism. Even very low concns. cause damage to the cytoplasmic membrane due to perturbation of the bilayers by the mols.' alkyl chains. Development of microbial resistance to QAC's, as well as cross-resistance to antibiotics, are particularly well documented. The polymer PHMB is antimicrobial because it disturbs the cell membrane's bilayer by interacting with it along the surface of the membrane. Resistance to the polymer appears not to develop despite many years of use in many fields. However, PHMB's toxicity to humans upon inhalation dictates great caution when deploying the substance.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhslejtL7F&md5=379509a23a32a998d32d1e91a7456867

  11. 11

      Li, Y. ; Zhou, C. ; Wang, S. ; Lin, Q. ; Ni, Z. ; Qiu, H. ; Morel, J. ; Qiu, R. Phytotoxicity and oxidative effects of typical quaternary ammonium compounds on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26 , 25985– 25999,  DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-05822-7

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      11

      Phytotoxicity and oxidative effects of typical quaternary ammonium compounds on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings

      Li, Yafei; Zhou, Can; Wang, Shizhong; Lin, Qingqi; Ni, Zhuobiao; Qiu, Hao; Morel, Jean Louis; Qiu, Rongliang

      Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2019), 26 (25), 25985-25999CODEN: ESPLEC; ISSN:0944-1344. (Springer)

      This study examd. the effects of three typical QACs, dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride (DTAC), dodecyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (DBAC), and didodecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC), on hydroponically cultured wheat seedlings. After 14 days of exposure, both hormesis and phytotoxicity were obsd. in the wheat seedlings. The shoot and root fresh wt. gradually increased as QAC concns. rose from 0.05 to 0.8 mg L-1. However, higher QAC concns. severely inhibited plant growth by decreasing shoot and root fresh wt., total root length, and photosynthetic pigment content. Moreover, the increase in malondialdehyde and O2.- contents, as well as root membrane permeability, reflected an oxidative burst and membrane lipid peroxidn. caused by QACs. However, the effects of QACs on the levels of these oxidative stress markers were compd.-specific, and the changes in superoxide dismutase, peroxidases, and catalase activity were partly related to reactive oxygen species levels. Considering the order of median effective concn. values (EC50) and the levels of oxidative stress induced by the three tested QACs, their phytotoxicities in wheat seedlings increased in the following order: DDAC < DTAC < DBAC, which mainly depended on their characteristics and applied concns. These results, which illustrated the complexity of QAC toxicity to plants, could potentially be used to assess the risk posed by these compds. in the environment.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtlCiu7%252FN&md5=25cfae3ce8ef0d3896c546cdef7fac26

  12. 12

      Xiling, G. ; Yin, C. ; Ling, W. ; Xiaosong, W. ; Jingjing, F. ; Fang, L. ; Xiaoyan, Z. ; Yiyue, G. ; Ying, C. ; Lunbiao, C. ; Liubo, Z. ; Hong, S. ; Yan, X. In vitro inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by commonly used disinfection products and methods. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11 , 2418– 2427,  DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82148-w

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      12

      In vitro inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by commonly used disinfection products and methods

      Xiling Guo; Yin Chen; Ling Wang; Xiaosong Wu; Jingjing Fan; Fang Li; Xiaoyan Zeng; Yiyue Ge; Ying Chi; Lunbiao Cui; Hong Sun; Yan Xu; Xiling Guo; Yin Chen; Xiaosong Wu; Xiaoyan Zeng; Yiyue Ge; Ying Chi; Lunbiao Cui; Yan Xu; Liubo Zhang

      Scientific reports (2021), 11 (1), 2418 ISSN:.

      Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is currently a global pandemic, and there are limited laboratory studies targeting pathogen resistance. This study aimed to investigate the effect of selected disinfection products and methods on the inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 in the laboratory. We used quantitative suspension testing to evaluate the effectiveness of the disinfectant/method. Available chlorine of 250 mg/L, 500 mg/L, and 1000 mg/L required 20 min, 5 min, and 0.5 min to inactivate SARS-CoV-2, respectively. A 600-fold dilution of 17% concentration of di-N-decyl dimethyl ammonium bromide (283 mg/L) and the same concentration of di-N-decyl dimethyl ammonium chloride required only 0.5 min to inactivate the virus efficiently. At 30% concentration for 1 min and 40% and above for 0.5 min, ethanol could efficiently inactivate SARS-CoV-2. Heat takes approximately 30 min at 56 °C, 10 min above 70 °C, or 5 min above 90 °C to inactivate the virus. The chlorinated disinfectants, Di-N-decyl dimethyl ammonium bromide/chloride, ethanol, and heat could effectively inactivate SARS-CoV-2 in the laboratory test. The response of SARS-CoV-2 to disinfectants is very similar to that of SARS-CoV.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3srms1Omuw%253D%253D&md5=9adf877584db9f70a62b8e2f056348d4

  13. 13

      Maris, P. Modes of action of disinfectants. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics) 1995, 14 , 47– 55,  DOI: 10.20506/rst.14.1.829

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      13

      Modes of action of disinfectants

      Maris P

      Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of Epizootics) (1995), 14 (1), 47-55 ISSN:0253-1933.

      The exact mechanism of action of a disinfectant is not easy to elucidate. The notion of 'target' in the bacterial cell, frequently evoked for the antibiotics, is not clear for disinfectants (except for some, e.g. chlorhexidine). In understanding the mode of action of a disinfectant, it can be difficult to distinguish the primary stage (characteristic of the mode of action) and the secondary stage (consequence of the action). The author describes the actions of disinfectants on the external membrane, cytoplasmic membrane and energy metabolism of cells; these actions include rupture of the membrane, loss of permeability and coagulation of the cytoplasm.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADyaK28%252FltlKhtg%253D%253D&md5=1c3c4486028b3a9094550d8d3ba321ab

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      Schrank, C. L. ; Minbiole, K. P. C. ; Wuest, W. M. Are Quaternary Ammonium Compounds, the Workhorse Disinfectants, Effective against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2?. ACS Infect. Dis. 2020, 6 , 1553– 1557,  DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00265

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      14

      Are Quaternary Ammonium Compounds, the Workhorse Disinfectants, Effective against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2?

      Schrank, Cassandra L.; Minbiole, Kevin P. C.; Wuest, William M.

      ACS Infectious Diseases (2020), 6 (7), 1553-1557CODEN: AIDCBC; ISSN:2373-8227. (American Chemical Society)

      A review. A novel virus named SARS-CoV-2 emerged from Wuhan, China in late 2019. Since then, the virus has quickly spread worldwide, leading the WHO to declare it as a pandemic; by the end of Apr. 2020, the no. of cases exceeded 3 million. Due to the high infectivity rate, SARS-CoV-2 is difficult to contain, making disinfectant protocols vital, esp. for essential, highly trafficked areas such as hospitals, grocery stores, and delivery centers. According to the CDC, best practices to slow the spread rely on good hand hygiene, including proper handwashing practices as well as the use of alc.-based hand sanitizers (ABHS). However, they provide warning against sanitizing products contg. benzalkonium chloride (BAC), which has sparked fear in both the scientific community as well as the general public as BAC, a common quaternary ammonium compd. (QAC), is ubiquitous in soaps and cleaning wipes, as well as hospital sanitation kits. This viewpoint aims to highlight the outdated and incongruous data in the evaluation of BAC against the family of known coronaviruses, as well as points to the need for further evaluation of the efficacy of QACs against coronaviruses.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXpt1yltLc%253D&md5=fbaf51531e0ab4e095d0481001ae32e5

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      Zhang, C. ; Cui, F. ; Zeng, G. ; Jiang, M. ; Yang, Z. ; Yu, Z. ; Zhu, M. ; Shen, L. Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs): A review on occurrence, fate and toxicity in the environment. Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 518–519 , 352– 362,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.007

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      15

      Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs): A review on occurrence, fate and toxicity in the environment

      Zhang, Chang; Cui, Fang; Zeng, Guang-ming; Jiang, Min; Yang, Zhong-zhu; Yu, Zhi-gang; Zhu, Meng-ying; Shen, Liu-qing

      Science of the Total Environment (2015), 518-519 (), 352-362CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)

      A review. Quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) are widely applied in household and industrial products. Most uses of QACs can be expected to lead to their release to wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and then dispersed into various environmental compartments through sewage effluent and sludge land application. Although QACs are considered to be aerobically biodegradable, the degrdn. is affected by its chem. structures, dissolved oxygen concn., complexing with anionic surfactants, etc. High abundance of QACs has been detected in sediment and sludge samples due to its strong sorption and resistance to biodegrdn. under anoxic/anaerobic conditions. QACs are toxic to a lot of aquatic organisms including fish, daphnids, algae, rotifer and microorganisms employed in wastewater treatment systems. And antibiotic resistance has emerged in microorganisms due to excessive use of QACs in household and industrial applications. The occurrence of QACs in the environment is correlated with anthropogenic activities, such as wastewater discharge from WWTPs or single source polluters, and sludge land application. This article also reviews the anal. methods for detn. of QACs in environmental compartments including surface water, wastewater, sewage sludge and sediments.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjvVOrtL4%253D&md5=bbf001e5e300f5d27408a311cc257abd

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      Mo, L. ; Liu, Y. ; Zhu, J. ; Qin, L. ; Liang, Y. ; Zeng, H. Benefits from hazards, benefits from nothing, and benefits from benefits: the combined effects of five quaternary ammonium compounds to Vibrio qinghaiensis Q67. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2020, 32 , 35– 45,  DOI: 10.1186/s12302-020-00310-z

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      16

      Benefits from hazards, benefits from nothing, and benefits from benefits: the combined effects of five quaternary ammonium compounds to Vibrio qinghaiensis Q67

      Mo, Ling-Yun; Liu, Yong-An; Zhu, Jie; Qin, Li-Tang; Liang, Yan-Peng; Zeng, Hong-Hu

      Environmental Sciences Europe (2020), 32 (1), 35CODEN: ESENCT; ISSN:2190-4715. (Springer)

      Abstr.: Background: Co-exposure of multiple quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) is widely present in the aquatic environment. The knowledge about their toxicities to microorganism at low concn. is lacking. This study aims to test the toxic response of Vibrio qinghaiensis Q67 (12-h exposure) to individual and mixts. of QACs by the long-term microplate toxicity anal. method (L-MTA). Results: Hormetic effects were obsd. for five individual QACs at 12-h exposure of Vibrio qinghaiensis Q67. The max. stimulation effect of - 339.66% was present in the 0.00561 mol/L tetraethylammonium bromide soln. A stimulation effect (- 23.55%) was detected when each of QACs in the five-component mixt. was present at 50% effect concn. ("benefits from hazards"). In addn., significant stimulation effects (- 96.28%) were obsd. for five QACs combined at the zero-effect point concn. ("benefits from nothing"). Further, a significant stimulation effect (- 406.16%) was obsd. when each of QACs was co-exposed at its max. stimulation effect concn. This phenomenon was termed "benefits from benefits". Conclusions: The results suggest that both single and mixt. of QACs presented hormetic effects. Benefits from hazards, benefits from nothing, and benefits from benefits were obsd. for the QACs mixts.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXkvFynurs%253D&md5=54bf84abcfb900fbfe5168bed200085c

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      Larsen, S. T. ; Verder, H. ; Nielsen, G. D. Airway Effects of Inhaled Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in Mice. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2012, 110 , 537– 543,  DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2011.00851.x

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      17

      Airway effects of inhaled quaternary ammonium compounds in mice

      Larsen, Soeren T.; Verder, Henrik; Nielsen, Gunnar D.

      Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology (2012), 110 (6), 537-543CODEN: BCPTBO; ISSN:1742-7835. (Wiley-Blackwell)

      Quaternary ammonium compds. (QAC) constitute a family of widely used chem. substances. The QAC benzalkonium chloride (BAC) has caused bronchoconstriction in human beings by poorly understood mechanisms and lung damage at high concn. as shown in a single rat study. This study evaluates acute airway effects in mice after inhalation of aerosols of the QACs, BAC, hexadecyl tri-Me ammonium bromide (HTA), cetyl pyridinium chloride (CPC) and di-Me dioctadecyl ammonium bromide (DDA). The QACs gave rise to concn.-dependent decreases in the tidal vol. (VT) and a concomitant increase in respiratory rate indicating pulmonary irritation. The potencies of the QAC to induce these effects were in the order: BAC > HTA = CPC > DDA. Furthermore, inhalation of BAC and CPC aerosols gave rise to pulmonary inflammation as apparent from bronchoalveolar lavage. Stimulation of nasal trigeminal nerve endings by QAC, which may serve as a warning signal, was absent.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XovFekt7s%253D&md5=b7d14aa51489c30c765001372cabc909

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      Dumas, O. ; Varraso, R. ; Boggs, K. M. ; Quinot, C. ; Zock, J. ; Henneberger, P. K. ; Speizer, F. E. ; Le Moual, N. ; Camargo, C. A. Association of Occupational Exposure to Disinfectants with Incidence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Among US Female Nurses. JAMA Network Open 2019, 2 , e1913563– e1913576,  DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.13563

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      Bello, A. ; Quinn, M. M. ; Perry, M. J. ; Milton, D. K. Characterization of occupational exposures to cleaning products used for common cleaning tasks-a pilot study of hospital cleaners. Environ. Health 2009, 8 , 11,  DOI: 10.1186/1476-069X-8-11

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      19

      Characterization of occupational exposures to cleaning products used for common cleaning tasks--a pilot study of hospital cleaners

      Bello Anila; Quinn Margaret M; Perry Melissa J; Milton Donald K

      Environmental health : a global access science source (2009), 8 (), 11 ISSN:.

      BACKGROUND: In recent years, cleaning has been identified as an occupational risk because of an increased incidence of reported respiratory effects, such as asthma and asthma-like symptoms among cleaning workers. Due to the lack of systematic occupational hygiene analyses and workplace exposure data, it is not clear which cleaning-related exposures induce or aggravate asthma and other respiratory effects. Currently, there is a need for systematic evaluation of cleaning products ingredients and their exposures in the workplace. The objectives of this work were to: a) identify cleaning products' ingredients of concern with respect to respiratory and skin irritation and sensitization; and b) assess the potential for inhalation and dermal exposures to these ingredients during common cleaning tasks. METHODS: We prioritized ingredients of concern in cleaning products commonly used in several hospitals in Massachusetts. Methods included workplace interviews, reviews of product Materials Safety Data Sheets and the scientific literature on adverse health effects to humans, reviews of physico-chemical properties of cleaning ingredients, and occupational hygiene observational analyses. Furthermore, the potential for exposure in the workplace was assessed by conducting qualitative assessment of airborne exposures and semi-quantitative assessment of dermal exposures. RESULTS: Cleaning products used for common cleaning tasks were mixtures of many chemicals, including respiratory and dermal irritants and sensitizers. Examples of ingredients of concern include quaternary ammonium compounds, 2-butoxyethanol, and ethanolamines. Cleaning workers are at risk of acute and chronic inhalation exposures to volatile organic compounds (VOC) vapors and aerosols generated from product spraying, and dermal exposures mostly through hands. CONCLUSION: Cleaning products are mixtures of many chemical ingredients that may impact workers' health through air and dermal exposures. Because cleaning exposures are a function of product formulations and product application procedures, a combination of product evaluation with workplace exposure assessment is critical in developing strategies for protecting workers from cleaning hazards. Our task based assessment methods allowed classification of tasks in different exposure categories, a strategy that can be employed by epidemiological investigations related to cleaning. The methods presented here can be used by occupational and environmental health practitioners to identify intervention strategies.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1Mzit1amtg%253D%253D&md5=32e2e750fad0d0042c17a663a31fb561

  20. 20

      Saito, R. ; Virji, M. A. ; Henneberger, P. K. ; Humann, M. J. ; LeBouf, R. F. ; Stanton, M. L. ; Liang, X. ; Stefaniak, A. B. Characterization of cleaning and disinfecting tasks and product use among hospital occupations. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2015, 58 , 101– 111,  DOI: 10.1002/ajim.22393

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      20

      Characterization of cleaning and disinfecting tasks and product use among hospital occupations

      Saito Rena; Virji M Abbas; Henneberger Paul K; Humann Michael J; LeBouf Ryan F; Stanton Marcia L; Liang Xiaoming; Stefaniak Aleksandr B

      American journal of industrial medicine (2015), 58 (1), 101-11 ISSN:.

      BACKGROUND: Healthcare workers have an elevated prevalence of asthma and related symptoms associated with the use of cleaning/disinfecting products. The objective of this study was to identify and characterize cleaning/disinfecting tasks and products used among hospital occupations. METHODS: Workers from 14 occupations at five hospitals were monitored for 216 shifts, and work tasks and products used were recorded at five-minute intervals. The major chemical constituents of each product were identified from safety data sheets. RESULTS: Cleaning and disinfecting tasks were performed with a high frequency at least once per shift in many occupations. Medical equipment preparers, housekeepers, floor strippers/waxers, and endoscopy technicians spent on average 108-177 min/shift performing cleaning/disinfecting tasks. Many occupations used products containing amines and quaternary ammonium compounds for >100 min/shift. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis demonstrates that many occupations besides housekeeping incur exposures to cleaning/disinfecting products, albeit for different durations and using products containing different chemicals.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2M3jvFWitg%253D%253D&md5=81088cb4ea5ce0fc17ba5b9e708b3820

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      Engelbrecht, K. ; Ambrose, D. ; Sifuentes, L. ; Gerba, C. ; Weart, I. ; Koenig, D. Decreased activity of commercially available disinfectants containing quaternary ammonium compounds when exposed to cotton towels. Am. J. Infect. Control 2013, 41 , 908– 911,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2013.01.017

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      21

      Decreased activity of commercially available disinfectants containing quaternary ammonium compounds when exposed to cotton towels

      Engelbrecht, Kathleen; Ambrose, Dianna; Sifuentes, Laura; Gerba, Charles; Weart, Ilona; Koenig, David

      American Journal of Infection Control (2013), 41 (10), 908-911CODEN: AJICDC; ISSN:0196-6553. (Elsevier)

      Health care-assocd. infections (HAIs) are a significant problem in hospitals, and environmental surfaces have been implicated as a source of HAIs in the hospital environment. Furthermore, Gram-neg. and Gram-pos. bacteria can persist on dry environmental surfaces for as long as several months. Poorly cleaned surfaces may serve as vehicles for microbes, which may then be transferred to patients. Cotton and microfiber towels were both tested for their abilities to bind quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs). The towels were exposed to 3 com. available disinfectants for 0.5, 30, and 180 min. Germicidal spray tests (GSTs) were performed for all towel eluates in accordance with the AOAC International method 961.02. Cotton towel eluates were analyzed for QAC concn. using high-performance liq. chromatog. QAC concns. were reduced by up to 85.3% after exposure to cotton towels, resulting in failure of the disinfectants exposed to cotton towels in 96% of the GSTs. The use of cotton towels with QAC-based cleansers should be reconsidered, particularly in hospitals where effective cleaning of the patient environment is needed to reduce the risk of HAIs.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXmvVWiu78%253D&md5=ec591f4ad270fe5336df10e4ce9cfaca

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      Lin, T. ; Chen, C. ; Huang, S. ; Kuo, C. ; Lai, C. ; Lin, W. Filter quality of electret masks in filtering 14.6–594 nm aerosol particles: Effects of five decontamination methods. PLoS One 2017, 12 , e0186217– e0186232,  DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0186217

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      22

      Filter quality of electret masks in filtering 14.6±594 nm aerosol particles: effects of five decontamination methods

      Lin, Tzu-Hsien; Chen, Chih-Chieh; Huang, Sheng-Hsiu; Kuo, Chung-Wen; Lai, Chane-Yu; Lin, Wen-Yinn

      PLoS One (2017), 12 (10), e0186217/1-e0186217/15CODEN: POLNCL; ISSN:1932-6203. (Public Library of Science)

      This study investigates the effects of five decontamination methods on the filter quality (qf) of three com. available electret masks ETHN95, Gauze and Spunlace nonwoven masks. Newly developed evaluation methods, the overall filter quality (qf,o) and the qf ratio were applied to evaluate the effectiveness of decontamination methods for respirators. A scanning mobility particle sizer is utilized to measure the concn. of polydispersed particles with diam. 14.6-594 nm. The penetration of particles and pressure drop (Δp) through the mask are used to det. qf and qf,o. Exptl. results reveal that the most penetrating particle size (MPS) for the pre-decontaminated N95, Gauze and Spunlace masks were 118 nm, 461 nm and 279 nm, resp., and the resp. penetration rates were 2.6%, 23.2% and 70.0%. The Δp through the pretreated N95 masks was 9.2 mm H2O at the breathing flow rate of heavy-duty workers, exceeding the Δp values obtained through Gauze and Spunlace masks. Decontamination increased the sizes of the most penetrating particles, changing the qf values of all of the masks: qf fell as particle size increased because the penetration increased. Bleach increased the Δp of N95, but destroyed the Gauze mask. However, the use of an autoclave reduces the Δp values of both the N95 and the Gauze mask. Neither the rice cooker nor ethanol altered the Δp of the Gauze mask. Chem. decontamination methods reduced the qf, o values for the three electret masks. The value of qf, o for PM0.1 exceeded that for PM0.1-0.6, because particles smaller than 100 nm had lower penetration, resulting in a better qf for a given pressure drop. The values of qf,o, particularly for PM0.1, reveal that for the tested treatments and masks, phys. decontamination methods are less destructive to the filter than chem. methods. Nevertheless, when purchasing new or reusing FFRs, penetration should be regarded as the priority.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtFGmsb7O&md5=575a25e062c1d9a78fc6011fd378f2a5

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      Fu, E.; McCue, K.; Boesenberg, D. Chemical Disinfection of Hard Surfaces – Household, Industrial and Institutional Settings. In Handbook for Cleaning/decontamination of Surfaces; Somasundaran, P., Johansson, I. , Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 2007; pp 573– 590.

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      McDonnell, G. ; Russell, A. D. Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1999, 12 , 147– 179,  DOI: 10.1128/CMR.12.1.147

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      Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance

      McDonnell, Gerald; Russell, A. Denver

      Clinical Microbiology Reviews (1999), 12 (1), 147-179CODEN: CMIREX; ISSN:0893-8512. (American Society for Microbiology)

      A review with 547 refs.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1MXpvVOlsQ%253D%253D&md5=0878e303c0aa6d96fca2f597fea009f1

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      Melin, V. E. ; Melin, T. E. ; Dessify, B. J. ; Nguyen, C. T. ; Shea, C. S. ; Hrubec, T. C. Quaternary ammonium disinfectants cause subfertility in mice by targeting both male and female reproductive processes. Reprod. Toxicol. 2016, 59 , 159– 166,  DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2015.10.006

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      Quaternary ammonium disinfectants cause subfertility in mice by targeting both male and female reproductive processes

      Melin, Vanessa E.; Melin, Travis E.; Dessify, Brian J.; Nguyen, Christina T.; Shea, Caroline S.; Hrubec, Terry C.

      Reproductive Toxicology (2016), 59 (), 159-166CODEN: REPTED; ISSN:0890-6238. (Elsevier Inc.)

      Alkyl di-Me benzyl ammonium chloride (ADBAC) and didecyl di-Me ammonium chloride (DDAC) are common ingredients in household bathroom and kitchen cleaning sprays. ADBAC + DDAC cause reproductive toxicity in mice. The aim of the present study was to investigate gender-specific reproductive effects from ADBAC + DDAC. Female reprodn. was assessed through ovulation, oocyte implantation, and estrus cycling. Male reproductive function was assessed by sperm concn., motility, and viability. Nos. of corpora lutea were not different after 2 wk, but decreased after 8 wk of ADBAC + DDAC exposure. Dams exposed for 5 wk to ADBAC + DDAC spent significantly less time in estrus. ADBAC + DDAC exposed males exhibited declines in both sperm concn. and motility, but not sperm viability. Subfertility in mice from ADBAC + DDAC exposure is, therefore, mediated through reproductive disturbances in both females and males. While the effect of ADBAC + DDAC exposure on human health is unclear, widespread exposure necessitates further consideration of their potential reproductive toxicity.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XlvVGjug%253D%253D&md5=d05165f0bf9ae6780b0ec0ab7de19708

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      Ioannou, C. J. ; Hanlon, G. W. ; Denyer, S. P. Action of Disinfectant Quaternary Ammonium Compounds against Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51 , 296– 306,  DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00375-06

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      Action of disinfectant quaternary ammonium compounds against Staphylococcus aureus

      Ioannou, Christopher J.; Hanlon, Geoff W.; Denyer, Stephen P.

      Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (2007), 51 (1), 296-306CODEN: AMACCQ; ISSN:0066-4804. (American Society for Microbiology)

      Mode-of-action studies concluded that alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC) (a blend of C12, C14 and C16 alkyl homologues) and didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) are both membrane-active agents, possessing subtly different modes of action reflecting early cell interactions against Staphylococcus aureus. ADBAC and DDAC exhibited similar MIC behaviors from 0.4 ppm to 1.8 ppm over an inoculum range of 1 × 105 to 1 × 109 CFU/mL at 35°C. For ADBAC and DDAC, an increased rapidity of killing against S. aureus (final concn., 2 × 109 CFU/mL) was obsd. at 35°C compared to 25°C. Concn. exponents (η) for killing were <2.5 for both agents, and temp. influenced the η value. Examn. of leakage and kill data suggested that a single leakage marker was not indicative of cell death. ADBAC and DDAC possessed Langmuir (L4) and high-affinity (H3/4) uptake isotherms, resp. ADBAC mols. formed a single monolayer of coverage of cells at the end of primary uptake, and DDAC formed a double monolayer. Rapid cell leakage occurred at bactericidal concns., with total depletion of the intracellular potassium and 260-nm-absorbing pools released in this strict order. Autolysis was obsd. for ADBAC and DDAC at concns. of 9 μg/mL (0.0278 mM and 0.0276 mM, resp.) and above, together with the depletion of approx. 30% of the internal potassium pool. Autolysis contributed to ADBAC and DDAC lethality, although high biocide concns. may have inhibited autolytic enzyme activity.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXktVaqsg%253D%253D&md5=b423d0a62b4faeee944ae1b59d9e20db

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      Gilbert, P. ; Moore, L. E. Cationic antiseptics: diversity of action under a common epithet. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2005, 99 , 703– 715,  DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02664.x

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      Cationic antiseptics: diversity of action under a common epithet

      Gilbert, P.; Moore, L. E.

      Journal of Applied Microbiology (2005), 99 (4), 703-715CODEN: JAMIFK; ISSN:1364-5072. (Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

      A review. Cationic antimicrobials have been in general use within clin. and domestic settings for over half a century. Recently, the use of antiseptics and disinfectants has been questioned in such settings because of the possibility that chronic exposure of the environment to such agents might select for less susceptible strains towards these agents and towards third party antibiotics. While no supportive evidence has emerged from retrospective field studies of high use environments such debate has tempered new applications for these mols. In the clinic, use of antiseptics, together with products, such as dressings, catheters and sutures, which are impregnated with biocides has increased. Prominent amongst these biocides are the cationics. Much of the research pertaining to the mechanisms of action of cationic antibacterials was conducted in the 1960s and 1970s and has not been subject to extensive review. Anal. of available publications suggest that monoquaternary ammonium compds. (QAC, cetrimide, benzalkonium chloride), biquaternaries and bisbiguanides (Chlorhexidine, Barquat), and polymeric biguanides (Vantocil, Cosmocil) while having similarities in action mechanism, differ substantially in the nature of their interaction with cell envelopes. This has profound implications in terms of cross-resistance where changes in susceptibility towards QAC is not reflected in changes towards other cationics. This review examines action mechanisms for these agents and highlights key differences that render them distinct categories of antibacterial agent.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXhtFyhsr3J&md5=1e8f882f65a738e1fbdee0adc8a0fcce

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      Boyce, J. M. Alcohols as Surface Disinfectants in Healthcare Settings. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2018, 39 , 323– 328,  DOI: 10.1017/ice.2017.301

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      Alcohols as Surface Disinfectants in Healthcare Settings

      Boyce John M

      Infection control and hospital epidemiology (2018), 39 (3), 323-328 ISSN:.

      Isopropyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol have been used as low-level disinfectants in healthcare settings for many years. Recent studies have found that ethyl alcohol inhibits protein synthesis in Escherichia coli by direct effects on ribosomes and RNA polymerase and that 60%-70% solutions have in vitro efficacy against murine norovirus, Ebola virus, and several coronaviruses. Alcohol prep pads or towelettes containing isopropyl or ethyl alcohol and water have been used primarily for disinfection of small noncritical items due to a concern regarding their rapid evaporation rates and associated short contact times. Sterile alcohol solutions are used mostly for disinfection of compounding pharmacies and controlled areas. One new Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-registered cleaner/disinfectant formulation differs from other alcohol-based disinfectants by virtue of having a 30-second contact time for multiple pathogens and a toxicity rating of category IV. Multiple disinfectants containing ethyl alcohol and/or isopropyl alcohol combined with other active agents such as quaternary ammonium or phenolic compounds are widely used for disinfecting environmental surfaces in healthcare facilities. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2018;39:323-328.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1MvkslGquw%253D%253D&md5=ae2af9fd6ae3eee5507b88b33ab472ae

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      Uchida, Y. ; Shigematu, H. ; Yamafuji, K. The Mode of Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Enzymologia 1965, 29 , 369– 376

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      Mode of action of hydrogen peroxide on deoxyribonucleic acid

      Uchida, Y.; Shigematsu, H.; Yamafuji, K.

      Enzymologia (1965), 29 (6), 369-76CODEN: ENZYAS; ISSN:0013-9424.

      The action of a biol. virogen, on DNA was studied. In the DNA treated with H2O2, adenine is most stable and guanine the most unstable. Exposure of DNA to H2O2 of appropriately low concn. results in the liberation of adenine or an adenine deriv. It is, therefore, assumed that H2O2 attacks the DNA of the chromosome and may cause a virus formation in cells.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaF28XksFemsg%253D%253D&md5=a1e12a5ef7336a7c5dec385bb016a086

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      Chu, W. ; Fang, C. ; Deng, Y. ; Xu, Z. Intensified Disinfection Amid COVID-19 Pandemic Poses Potential Risks to Water Quality and Safety. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 , 4084– 4086,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c04394

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      Intensified Disinfection Amid COVID-19 Pandemic Poses Potential Risks to Water Quality and Safety

      Chu, Wenhai; Fang, Chao; Deng, Yang; Xu, Zuxin

      Environmental Science & Technology (2021), 55 (7), 4084-4086CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)

      The upsurge and overuse of chlorine-based disinfectants during the COVID-19 pandemic post a threat to ecol. and human health by impacting water quality. To mitigate high levels of chlorine and disinfection byproducts in wastewater discharges and drinking waters, various mitigation strategies should be employed simultaneously to protect water quality in these unprecedented times. Approaches include strengthened water quality monitoring for the receiving water bodies and multiple barriers for minimization of chlorine loadings to the environment from wastewater release. This calls for strong and global collaborations of industry, academia, and government.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXitFygs7bM&md5=92e68b228567bc0aa56b038b98f6b214

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      Kataki, S. ; Chatterjee, S. ; Vairale, M. G. ; Sharma, S. ; Dwivedi, S. K. Concerns and strategies for wastewater treatment during COVID-19 pandemic to stop plausible transmission. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2021, 164 , 105156– 105174,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105156

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      Concerns and strategies for wastewater treatment during COVID-19 pandemic to stop plausible transmission

      Kataki Sampriti; Chatterjee Soumya; Vairale Mohan G; Sharma Sonika; Dwivedi Sanjai K

      Resources, conservation, and recycling (2021), 164 (), 105156 ISSN:0921-3449.

      Along with outbreak of the pandemic COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2, the problem of biomedical wastewater disposal has caused widespread public concern, as reportedly the presence is confirmed in wastewater. Keeping in mind (i) available evidence indicating need to better understand potential of wastewater mediated transmission and (ii) knowledge gaps in its occurrence, viability, persistence, and inactivation in wastewater, in this present work, we wanted to re-emphasize some strategies for management of SARS-CoV-2 contaminated wastewater to minimise any possible secondary transmission to human and environment. The immediate challenges to consider while considering wastewater management are uncertainty about this new biothreat, relying on prediction based treatments options, significant population being the latent asymptomatic carrier increased risk of passing out of the virus to sewage network, inadequacy of wastewater treatment facility particularly in populated developing countries and increased generation of wastewater due to increased cleanliness concern. In absence of regulated central treatment facility, installation of decentralized wastewater treatment units with single or multiple disinfection barriers in medical units, quarantine centre, isolation wards, testing facilities seems to be urgent for minimizing any potential risk of wastewater transmission. Employing some emerging disinfectants (peracetic acid, performic acid, sodium dichloro isocyanurate, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, benzalconium chloride) shows prospects in terms of virucidal properties. However, there is need of additional research on coronaviruses specific disinfection data generation, regular monitoring of performance considering all factors influencing virus survival, performance evaluation in actual water treatment, need of augmenting disinfection dosages, environmental considerations to select the most appropriate disinfection technology.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB38botVOgtg%253D%253D&md5=63f07e77d9fe9e639d76430e628439a8

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      Wang, J. ; Shen, J. ; Ye, D. ; Yan, X. ; Zhang, Y. ; Yang, W. ; Li, X. ; Wang, J. ; Zhang, L. ; Pan, L. Disinfection technology of hospital wastes and wastewater: Suggestions for disinfection strategy during coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in China. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 262 , 114665– 114675,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114665

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      Disinfection technology of hospital wastes and wastewater: Suggestions for disinfection strategy during coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in China

      Wang, Jiao; Shen, Jin; Ye, Dan; Yan, Xu; Zhang, Yujing; Yang, Wenjing; Li, Xinwu; Wang, Junqi; Zhang, Liubo; Pan, Lijun

      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2020), 262 (), 114665CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)

      A review. Hospitals are important sources of pollutants resulted from diagnostic, lab. and research activities as well as medicine excretion by patients, which include active component of drugs and metabolite, chems., residues of pharmaceuticals, radioactive markers, iodinated contrast media, etc. The discharge of hospital wastes and wastewater, esp. those without appropriate treatment would expose the public in danger of infection. In particular, under the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic context in China, it is of great significance to reduce the health risks to the public and environment. In this study, technologies of different types of hospital wastes and wastewater disinfection have been summarized. Liq. chlorine, sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and UV irradn. disinfection are commonly used for hospital wastewater disinfection. While incineration, chem. disinfection, and phys. disinfection are commonly used for hospital wastes disinfection. In addn., considering the characteristics of various hospital wastes, the classification and selection of corresponding disinfection technologies are discussed. On this basis, this study provides scientific suggestions for management, technol. selection, and operation of hospital wastes and wastewater disinfection in China, which is of great significance for development of national disinfection strategy for hospital wastes and wastewater during COVID-19 pandemic.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXosVSqt7k%253D&md5=6e8a6d485a5afdfe67b38fc8c8f79c7b

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      Zhang, H. ; Tang, W. ; Chen, Y. ; Yin, W. Disinfection threatens aquatic ecosystems. Science 2020, 368 , 146– 147,  DOI: 10.1126/science.abb8905

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      Disinfection threatens aquatic ecosystems

      Sills, Jennifer; Zhang, Hong; Tang, Wenzhong; Chen, Yushun; Yin, Wei

      Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2020), 368 (6487), 146-147CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:1095-9203. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)

      There is no expanded citation for this reference.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXmvV2qtLc%253D&md5=36c6015e9dfa91e5069a7ba88a753339

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      Hora, P. I. ; Arnold, W. A. Photochemical fate of quaternary ammonium compounds in river water. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 2020, 22 , 1368– 1381,  DOI: 10.1039/D0EM00086H

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      Photochemical fate of quaternary ammonium compounds in river water

      Hora, Priya I.; Arnold, William A.

      Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts (2020), 22 (6), 1368-1381CODEN: ESPICZ; ISSN:2050-7895. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

      Quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) are not completely removed during wastewater treatment and are frequently detected in surface waters and sediments. The photochem. transformation of QACs has not been thoroughly investigated as a potential degrdn. pathway affecting their fate in the environment. Kinetic studies of common QACs with and without arom. groups under simulated and natural sunlight conditions were performed with model sensitizers and dissolved org. matter to est. photochem. half-lives in the aquatic environment. All QACs investigated react with hydroxyl radicals at diffusion-controlled rates (∼2.9 x 109 to 1.2 x 1010 M-1 s-1). Benzethonium reacted via direct photolysis (ΦBZT,outdoor = 1.7 x 10-2 (mol Ei-1)). Benzethonium also reacted with the triplet excited state model sensitizer 2-acetylnaphthalene, but evidence suggests this reaction pathway is unimportant in natural waters due to faster quenching of the triplet 2-acetylnaphthalene by oxygen. Reactivity with singlet oxygen for the QACs was minimal. Overall, reactions with hydroxyl radicals will dominate over direct photolysis due to limited spectral overlap of sunlight emission and QAC absorbance. Photolysis half-lives are predicted to be 12 to 94 days, indicating slow abiotic degrdn. in surface water.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXntlegur4%253D&md5=582dc03e5cbaadd7385f93b243a7fcb3

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      Di Nica, V. ; Gallet, J. ; Villa, S. ; Mezzanotte, V. Toxicity of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) as single compounds and mixtures to aquatic non-target microorganisms: Experimental data and predictive models. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2017, 142 , 567– 577,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.04.028

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      Toxicity of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) as single compounds and mixtures to aquatic non-target microorganisms: Experimental data and predictive models

      Di Nica, V.; Gallet, J.; Villa, S.; Mezzanotte, V.

      Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety (2017), 142 (), 567-577CODEN: EESADV; ISSN:0147-6513. (Elsevier B.V.)

      The toxic effects of five Quaternary Ammonium Compds. (QACs) that are widely used as active ingredients in personal care products were assessed using the bioluminescent bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri (formerly Vibrio fischeri) (Microtox test system). The exptl. results showed a relevant toxicity for almost all of the single QACs, with IC50 values lower than 1 mg L-1. Anal. of the mode of action through the application of the Quant. Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) models indicated an a-specific reactivity for most of the QACs toward A. fischeri. Only hexadecyl tri-Me ammonium chloride (ATMAC-16) behaved as a polar-narcotic, with a low reactivity toward the bacterial cell membrane. The concn. response curves of the different binary and multicomponent mixts. of QACs were also evaluated with respect to the predictions from the Concn. Addn. (CA) and Independent Action (IA) models. For almost all of the binary and multicomponent mixts. (7 out of 11 mixts. tested), an agreement between the exptl. and predicted ICx was obsd. and confirmed via application of the Model Deviation Ratio (MDR). In four cases, some deviations from the expected behavior were obsd. (potential antagonistic and synergistic interactions) at concns. on the order of hundreds of μg L-1, which could be of environmental concern, esp. in the case of synergistic effects. The anal. of aquatic ecotoxicity data and the few available values of the measured environmental concns. (MECs) from the literature for wastewaters and receiving waterbodies suggest that a potential risk toward aquatic life cannot be excluded.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXntlajt7o%253D&md5=93b3d01b2cae2c2338e9d2b8b796ca16

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      Christen, V. ; Faltermann, S. ; Brun, N. R. ; Kunz, P. Y. ; Fent, K. Cytotoxicity and molecular effects of biocidal disinfectants (quaternary ammonia, glutaraldehyde, poly(hexamethylene biguanide) hydrochloride PHMB) and their mixtures in vitro and in zebrafish eleuthero-embryos. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 586 , 1204– 1218,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.114

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      Cytotoxicity and molecular effects of biocidal disinfectants (quaternary ammonia, glutaraldehyde, poly(hexamethylene biguanide) hydrochloride PHMB) and their mixtures in vitro and in zebrafish eleuthero-embryos

      Christen, Verena; Faltermann, Susanne; Brun, Nadja Rebecca; Kunz, Petra Y.; Fent, Karl

      Science of the Total Environment (2017), 586 (), 1204-1218CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)

      Frequently used biocidal disinfectants, including quaternary ammonium compds. (QAC), glutaraldehyde and poly(hexamethylene biguanide) hydrochloride (PHMB), occur in the aquatic environment but their potential effects in fish are poorly known, in particular when occurring as mixts. To investigate their joint activity, we assessed the cytotoxicity of three QACs (BAC, barquat and benzalkonium chloride), glutaraldehyde and PHMB by the MTT assay individually, followed by assessing binary and ternary mixts. in zebrafish liver cells (ZFL) and human liver cells (Huh7). We also analyzed mol. effects by quant. PCR in vitro and in zebrafish eleuthero-embryos employing a targeted gene expression approach. QACs displayed strong cytotoxicity in both cell lines with EC50 values in the low μg/mL range, while glutaraldehyde and PHMB were less cytotoxic. Most of the binary and both ternary mixts. showed synergistic activity at all equi-effective concns. A mixt. contg. all five compds. mixed at their no obsd. effect concns. showed strong cytotoxicity, suggesting a synergistic interaction. Addnl., we detd. transcriptional alterations of target genes related to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, general stress, inflammatory action and apoptosis. Induction of ER stress genes occurred at non-cytotoxic concns. of barquat, glutaraldehyde and BAC in ZFL cells. Barquat and BAC induced tumor necrosis factor alpha (tnf-α). Similar transcriptional alterations were found in vivo upon exposure of zebrafish eleuthero-embryos for 120 h. Glutaraldehyde led to induction of ER stress genes and tnf-α, while BAC addnl. induced genes indicative of apoptosis, which was also the case with benzalkonium chloride at the highest concn. We demonstrated strong cytotoxicity of QACs, and synergistic activity of binary, ternary and quintuple mixts. Barquat and BAC let to induction of ER stress and inflammation in vitro, and BAC and glutaraldehyde at non-toxic concns. in vivo, while benzalkonium chloride induced expression of tnf-α only.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXjsVSjuro%253D&md5=c7af326d5572b46346a4d92c1fd48aa1

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      Xiang, L. ; Wang, X. ; Li, Y. ; Huang, X. ; Wu, X. ; Zhao, H. ; Li, H. ; Cai, Q. ; Mo, C. Analysis of Trace Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) in Vegetables Using Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction and Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63 , 6689– 6697,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01828

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      Analysis of trace quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) in vegetables using ultrasonic-assisted extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

      Xiang, Lei; Wang, Xiong-Ke; Li, Yan-Wen; Huang, Xian-Pei; Wu, Xiao-Lian; Zhao, Hai-Ming; Li, Hui; Cai, Quan-Ying; Mo, Ce-Hui

      Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2015), 63 (30), 6689-6697CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

      A reliable, sensitive, and cost-effective method was developed for detg. three quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) including dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride, cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, and didodecyldimethylammonium chloride in various vegetables using ultrasonic-assisted extn. and gas chromatog.-mass spectrometry. The variety and acidity of extn. solvents, extn. times, and cleanup efficiency of sorbents were estd. to obtain an optimized procedure for extn. of the QACs in nine vegetable matrixes. Excellent linearities (R2 > 0.992) were obtained for the analytes in the nine matrixes. The limits of detection and quantitation were 0.7-6.0 and 2.3-20.0 μg/kg (dry wt., dw) in various matrixes, resp. The recoveries in the nine matrixes ranged from 70.5% to 108.0% with relative std. deviations below 18.0%. The developed method was applied to det. the QACs in 27 vegetable samples collected from Guangzhou in southern China, showing very high detection frequency with a concn. of 23-180 μg/kg (dw).

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtFGitbjN&md5=aac590892e3ba1f36cbe89b2bb85d32d

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      Williams, M.; Kookana, R. S. Fate and Behavior of Environmental Contaminants Arising From Health-Care Provision. In Health Care and Environmental Contamination; Elsevier: Marrickville, 2018; Vol. 11, pp 21– 40;  DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63857-1.00003-6 .

  40. 40

      Chhetri, R. K. ; Baun, A. ; Andersen, H. R. Algal toxicity of the alternative disinfectants performic acid (PFA), peracetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and their by-products hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and chlorite (ClO2−). Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2017, 220 , 570– 574,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.11.011

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      40

      Algal toxicity of the alternative disinfectants performic acid (PFA), peracetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and their by-products hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and chlorite (ClO-2)

      Chhetri, Ravi Kumar; Baun, Anders; Andersen, Henrik Rasmus

      International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health (2017), 220 (3), 570-574CODEN: IJEHFT; ISSN:1438-4639. (Elsevier GmbH)

      Environmental effect evaluation of disinfection of combined sewer overflow events with alternative chem. disinfectants requires that the environmental toxicity of the disinfectants and the main by products of their use are known. Many disinfectants degrade quickly in water which should be included in the evaluation of both their toxicity as detd. in standardized tests and their possible neg. effect in the water environment. Here we evaluated according to the standardized ISO 8692 test the toxicity towards the green microalgae, Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, of three disinfectants: performic acid (PFA), peracetic acid (PAA) and chlorine dioxide (ClO2) as well as two byproducts of their use: hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and chlorite. All of the five chems. investigated showed clear toxicity to the algae with well-defined dose response curves. The EC50 values ranged from 0.16 to 2.9 mg/L based on nominal concns. leading to the labeling of the chems. as either toxic or very toxic. The five investigated chems. decreased in toxicity in the order chlorine dioxide, performic acid, peracetic acid, chlorite and hydrogen peroxide. The stability of the chems. increased in the same order as the toxicity decrease. This indicates that even though ClO2 has the highest environmental hazard potential, it may still be suitable as an alternative disinfectant due to its rapid degrdn. in water.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitVyrtbrI&md5=8714262d71618a4196a91d88077d2fdd

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      Emmanuel, E. ; Keck, G. ; Blanchard, J. ; Vermande, P. ; Perrodin, Y. Toxicological effects of disinfections using sodium hypochlorite on aquatic organisms and its contribution to AOX formation in hospital wastewater. Environ. Int. 2004, 30 , 891– 900,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2004.02.004

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      41

      Toxicological effects of disinfections using sodium hypochlorite on aquatic organisms and its contribution to AOX formation in hospital wastewater

      Emmanuel, Evens; Keck, Gerard; Blanchard, Jean-Marie; Vermande, Paul; Perrodin, Yves

      Environment International (2004), 30 (7), 891-900CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier)

      Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is often used for disinfecting hospital wastewater in order to prevent the spread of pathogenic microorganisms, causal agents of nosocomial infectious diseases. Chlorine disinfectants in wastewater react with org. matters, giving rise to org. chlorine compds. such as AOX (halogenated org. compds. adsorbable on activated carbon), which are toxic for aquatic organisms and are persistent environmental contaminants. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity on aquatic organisms of hospital wastewater from services using NaOCl in pre-chlorination. Wastewater samples from the infectious and tropical diseases department of a hospital of a large city in southeast of France were collected. Three samples per day were collected in the connecting well department at 9 a.m., 1 p.m. and 5 p.m. during 8 days from 13 Mar. to 22 Mar. 2001, and a mixt. was made at 6 p.m. with the three samples in order to obtain a representative sample for the day. The toxicity test comprised the 24-h EC50 on Daphnia magna and a bioluminescence assay using Vibrio fischeri photobacteria. Fecal coliforms and physicochem. analyses such as total org. carbon (TOC), chloride, AOX, total suspended solids (TSS) and COD were carried out. Wastewater samples highlighted considerable acute toxicity on D. magna and V. fischeri photobacteria. However, low most probable nos. (MPN), ranging from <3 to 2400 for 100 mL, were detected for fecal coliforms. Statistical anal., with a confidence interval of 95%, gave a strong linear regression assessed with r=0.98 between AOX concns. and EC50 (TU) on daphnia. The identification of an ideal concn. of NaOCl in disinfecting hospital wastewater, i.e. its non-obsd. effect concn. (NOEC) on algae and D. magna, seems to be a research issue that could facilitate the control of AOX toxicity effects on aquatic organisms. Therefore, it would be necessary to monitor the biocide properties of NaOCl on fecal coliforms at various doses and its toxicity effects on aquatic organisms.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXkvFWgur4%253D&md5=46bfff7cf4d23d4d736a87418b7da036

  42. 42

      Li, D. ; Sangion, A. ; Li, L. Evaluating consumer exposure to disinfecting chemicals against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and associated health risks. Environ. Int. 2020, 145 , 106108– 106120,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106108

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      42

      Evaluating consumer exposure to disinfecting chemicals against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and associated health risks

      Li, Dingsheng; Sangion, Alessandro; Li, Li

      Environment International (2020), 145 (), 106108CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier Ltd.)

      Disinfection of surfaces has been recommended as one of the most effective ways to combat the spread of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, overexposure to disinfecting chems. may lead to unintended human health risks. Here, using an indoor fate and chem. exposure model, we est. human exposure to 22 disinfecting chems. on the lists recommended by various governmental agencies against COVID-19, resulting from contact with disinfected surfaces and handwashing. Three near-field exposure routes, i.e., mouthing-mediated oral ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption, are considered to calc. the whole-body uptake doses and blood concns. caused by single use per day for three age groups (3, 14, and 24-yr-old). We also assess the health risks by comparing the predicted whole-body uptake doses with in vivo toxicol. data and the predicted blood concns. with in vitro bioactivity data. Our results indicate that both the total exposure and relative contribution of each exposure route vary considerably among the disinfecting chems. due to their diverse physicochem. properties. 3-yr-old children have consistent higher exposure than other age groups, esp. in the scenario of contact with disinfected surfaces, due to their more frequent hand contact and mouthing activities. Due to the short duration of handwashing, we do not expect any health risk from the use of disinfecting chems. in handwashing. In contrast, exposure from contact with disinfected surfaces may result in health risks for certain age groups esp. children, even the surfaces are disinfected once a day. Interestingly, risk assessments based on whole-body uptake doses and in vivo toxicol. data tend to give higher risk ests. than do those based on blood concns. and in vitro bioactivity data. Our results reveal the most important exposure routes for disinfecting chems. used in the indoor environment; they also highlight the need for more accurate data for both chem. properties and toxicity to better understand the risks assocd. with the increased use of disinfecting chems. in the pandemic.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhvVKgsL3J&md5=23e4c587697a97bc7b96a5b6e41e79e3

  43. 43

      Li, Z. ; Song, G. ; Bi, Y. ; Gao, W. ; He, A. ; Lu, Y. ; Wang, Y. ; Jiang, G. Occurrence and Distribution of Disinfection Byproducts in Domestic Wastewater Effluent, Tap Water, and Surface Water during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 , 4103– 4114,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06856

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      43

      Occurrence and Distribution of Disinfection Byproducts in Domestic Wastewater Effluent, Tap Water, and Surface Water during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in China

      Li, Zhigang; Song, Gaofei; Bi, Yonghong; Gao, Wei; He, Anen; Lu, Yao; Wang, Yawei; Jiang, Guibin

      Environmental Science & Technology (2021), 55 (7), 4103-4114CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)

      A review. Intensified efforts to curb transmission of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 might lead to an elevated concn. of disinfectants in domestic wastewater and drinking water in China, possibly resulting in the generation of numerous toxic disinfection byproducts (DBPs). In this study, the occurrence and distribution of five categories of DBPs, including six trihalomethanes (THMs), nine haloacetic acids (HAAs), two haloketones, nine nitrosamines, and nine arom. halogenated DBPs, in domestic wastewater effluent, tap water, and surface water were investigated. The results showed that the total concn. level of measured DBPs in wastewater effluents (78.3μg/L) was higher than that in tap water (56.0μg/L, p = 0.05), followed by surface water (8.0μg/L, p < 0.01). Moreover, HAAs and THMs were the two most dominant categories of DBPs in wastewater effluents, tap water, and surface water, accounting for >90%, resp. Out of the regulated DBPs, none of the wastewater effluents and tap water samples exceeded the corresponding max. guideline values of chloroform (300μg/L), THM4 (80μg/L), NDMA (100 ng/L), and only 2 of 35 tap water samples (67.6 and 63.3μg/L) exceeded the HAA5 (60μg/L) safe limit. HAAs in wastewater effluents showed higher values of risk quotient for green algae. This study illustrates that the elevated use of disinfectants within the guidance ranges during water disinfection did not result in a significant increase in the concn. of DBPs.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXisVWgur0%253D&md5=49887f1769bbc31c76580ae6d2c65fac

  44. 44

      Chang, A.; Schnall, A. H.; Law, R. ; . Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Cleaning and Disinfectant Chemical Exposures and Temporal Associations with COVID-19 — National Poison Data System. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6916e1.htm (accessed May 19, 2021).

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      Mattila, J. M. ; Lakey, P. S. J. ; Shiraiwa, M. ; Wang, C. ; Abbatt, J. P. D. ; Arata, C. ; Goldstein, A. H. ; Ampollini, L. ; Katz, E. F. ; Decarlo, P. F. ; Zhou, S. ; Kahan, T. F. ; Cardoso-Saldaña, F. J. ; Ruiz, L. H. ; Abeleira, A. ; Boedicker, E. K. ; Vance, M. E. ; Farmer, D. K. Multiphase Chemistry Controls Inorganic Chlorinated and Nitrogenated Compounds in Indoor Air during Bleach Cleaning. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54 , 1730– 1739,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05767

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      45

      Multiphase Chemistry Controls Inorganic Chlorinated and Nitrogenated Compounds in Indoor Air during Bleach Cleaning

      Mattila, James M.; Lakey, Pascale S. J.; Shiraiwa, Manabu; Wang, Chen; Abbatt, Jonathan P. D.; Arata, Caleb; Goldstein, Allen H.; Ampollini, Laura; Katz, Erin F.; De Carlo, Peter F.; Zhou, Shan; Kahan, Tara F.; Cardoso-Saldana, Felipe J.; Ruiz, Lea Hildebrandt; Abeleira, Andrew; Boedicker, Erin K.; Vance, Marina E.; Farmer, Delphine K.

      Environmental Science & Technology (2020), 54 (3), 1730-1739CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)

      Elevated concns. of gaseous inorg. chlorinated and nitrogenous compds. in indoor air while cleaning with a com. bleach soln. during the House Observations of Microbial and Environmental Chem. field campaign in summer 2018 are reported. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), Cl2, and nitryl chloride (ClNO2) reached ppbv concns. indoors during bleach cleaning; several orders of magnitude higher than typically measured in the outdoor atm. Kinetic modeling showed multi-phase chem. plays a central role in controlling indoor Cl2 and reactive N chem. during these periods. Cl2 prodn. occurred by heterogeneous reactions of HOCl on indoor surfaces. ClNO2 and chloramine (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3) prodn. occurred in the applied bleach by aq. reactions involving NO2- and NH3, resp. Aq.-phase and surface chem. resulted in elevated concns. of gaseous NO2. The authors predicted OH- and Cl radical prodn. during these periods (106 and 107 mols./cm3-s, resp.), driven by HOCl and Cl2 photolysis. Ventilation and photolysis accounted for <50% and <0.1% total loss of bleach-related compds. from indoor air, resp. It was concluded that uptake by indoor surfaces in an important addnl. loss process. Indoor HOCl and NCl3 mixing ratios during bleach cleaning are likely detrimental to human health.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhtVGgsbk%253D&md5=5377c801d26a4e5c201a6c10bace72eb

  46. 46

      Ha, Y. ; Kim, Y. ; Song, E. ; Yoo, H. J. ; Kwon, J. Development of a personal passive air sampler for estimating exposure to effective chlorine while using chlorine-based disinfectants. Indoor Air 2021, 31 , 557– 565,  DOI: 10.1111/ina.12747

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      Development of a personal passive air sampler for estimating exposure to effective chlorine while using chlorine-based disinfectants

      Ha Yeonjeong; Kim Yoonsub; Kwon Jung-Hwan; Song Eugene; Yoo Hyun Jung

      Indoor air (2021), 31 (2), 557-565 ISSN:.

      With an increasing use of indoor disinfectants such as chlorine (Cl2 ) and hypochlorous acid, a convenient sampler for estimating exposure to oxidants, such as effective chlorine, is necessary. Here, we developed a personal passive air sampler (PPAS) composed of a redox dye, o-dianisidine, in a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) sheet. o-Dianisidine readily reacts with gaseous oxidants generated by bleach usage, and its color changes as the reaction progresses; hence, personal exposure to effective chlorine could be easily detected by the naked eye, while cumulative exposure could be determined by measuring concentrations of o-dianisidine reacting with it. The PPAS was calibrated, and a sampling rate of 0.00253 m(3) /h was obtained using a small test chamber. The PPAS was tested with the help of ten volunteers whose personal exposure to Cl2 -equivalent gas was estimated after bathrooms were cleaned using spray and liquid-type household disinfection products, and the accumulated exposure-gas concentrations ranged from 69 to 408 ppbv and 148 to 435 ppbv, respectively. These PPAS-derived exposure concentrations were approximately two orders lower than those estimated using ConsExpo, suggesting a significant overestimation by prevailing screening models, possibly due to the ignorance of transformation reactions.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3s%252FjslCgsw%253D%253D&md5=7a969534e11ebd60d67442d7a009bcb4

  48. 48

      Maier, A. ; Ovesen, J. L. ; Allen, C. L. ; York, R. G. ; Gadagbui, B. K. ; Kirman, C. R. ; Poet, T. ; Quiñones-Rivera, A. Safety assessment for ethanol-based topical antiseptic use by health care workers: Evaluation of developmental toxicity potential. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2015, 73 , 248– 264,  DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.07.015

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      48

      Safety assessment for ethanol-based topical antiseptic use by health care workers: Evaluation of developmental toxicity potential

      Maier, Andrew; Ovesen, Jerald L.; Allen, Casey L.; York, Raymond G.; Gadagbui, Bernard K.; Kirman, Christopher R.; Poet, Torka; Quinones-Rivera, Antonio

      Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology (2015), 73 (1), 248-264CODEN: RTOPDW; ISSN:0273-2300. (Elsevier Inc.)

      Ethanol-based topical antiseptic hand rubs, commonly referred to as alc.-based hand sanitizers (ABHS), are routinely used as the std. of care to reduce the presence of viable bacteria on the skin and are an important element of infection control procedures in the healthcare industry. There are no reported indications of safety concerns assocd. with the use of these products in the workplace. However, the prevalence of such alc.-based products in healthcare facilities and safety questions raised by the U. S. FDA led us to assess the potential for developmental toxicity under relevant product-use scenarios. Ests. from a physiol. based pharmacokinetic modeling approach suggest that occupational use of alc.-based topical antiseptics in the healthcare industry can generate low, detectable concns. of ethanol in blood. This unintended systemic dose probably reflects contributions from both dermal absorption and inhalation of volatilized product. The resulting internal dose is low, even under hypothetical, worst case intensive use assumptions. A significant margin of exposure (MOE) exists compared to demonstrated effect levels for developmental toxicity under worst case use scenarios, and the MOE is even more significant for typical anticipated occupational use patterns. The estd. internal doses of ethanol from topical application of alc.-based hand sanitizers are also in the range of those assocd. with consumption of non-alc. beverages (i.e., non-alc. beer, flavored water, and orange juice), which are considered safe for consumers. Addnl., the estd. internal doses assocd. with expected exposure scenarios are below or in the range of the expected internal doses assocd. with the current occupational exposure limit for ethanol set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. These results support the conclusion that there is no significant risk of developmental or reproductive toxicity from repeated occupational exposures and high frequency use of ABHSs or surgical scrubs. Overall, the data support the conclusion that alc.-based hand sanitizer products are safe for their intended use in hand hygiene as a crit. infection prevention strategy in healthcare settings.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXht1Kls73N&md5=dbe9d7676c88396f939cc1fcebedf2dd

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      Pires, D. ; Bellissimo-Rodrigues, F. ; Pittet, D. Bellissimo-Rodrigues, Fernando; Pittet, Didier, Ethanol-based handrubs: Safe for patients and health care workers. Am. J. Infect. Control 2016, 44 , 858– 859,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2016.02.016

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      Ethanol-based handrubs: Safe for patients and health care workers

      Pires Daniela; Bellissimo-Rodrigues Fernando; Pittet Didier

      American journal of infection control (2016), 44 (8), 858-9 ISSN:.

      There is no expanded citation for this reference.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC28bhtFaltQ%253D%253D&md5=3221ad6921592f1ea6b1c44e5a6ebab6

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      Herron, J. ; Reese, R. C. ; Tallman, K. A. ; Narayanaswamy, R. ; Porter, N. A. ; Xu, L. Identification of Environmental Quaternary Ammonium Compounds as Direct Inhibitors of Cholesterol Biosynthesis. Toxicol. Sci. 2016, 151 , 261– 270,  DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw041

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      Identification of environmental quaternary ammonium compounds as direct inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis

      Herron, Josi; Reese, Rosalyn C.; Tallman, Keri A.; Narayanaswamy, Rohini; Porter, Ned A.; Xu, Libin

      Toxicological Sciences (2016), 151 (2), 261-270CODEN: TOSCF2; ISSN:1096-0929. (Oxford University Press)

      In this study, we aim to identify environmental mols. that can inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis, potentially leading to the same biochem. defects as obsd. in cholesterol biosynthesis disorders, which are often characterized by congenital malformations and developmental delay. Using the Distributed Structure-Searchable Toxicity (DSSTox) Database Network developed by EPA, we first carried out in silico screening of environmental mols. that display structures similar to AY9944, a known potent inhibitor of 3β-hydroxysterol-Δ7-reductase (DHCR7)-the last step of cholesterol biosynthesis. Mols. that display high similarity to AY9944 were subjected to test in mouse and human neuroblastoma cells for their effectiveness in inhibiting cholesterol biosynthesis by analyzing cholesterol and its precursor using gas chromatog.-mass spectrometry. We found that a common disinfectant mixt., benzalkonium chlorides (BACs), exhibits high potency in inhibiting DHCR7, as suggested by greatly elevated levels of the cholesterol precursor, 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC). Subsequent structure-activity studies suggested that the potency of BACs as Dhcr7 inhibitors decrease with the length of their hydrocarbon chain: C10>C12»C14>C16. Real-time qPCR anal. revealed upregulation of the genes related to cholesterol biosynthesis and downregulation of the genes related to cholesterol efflux, suggesting a feedback response to the inhibition. Furthermore, an oxidative metabolite of 7-DHC that was previously identified as a biomarker in vivo was also found in cells exposed to BACs by liq. chromatog.-mass spectrometry. Our findings suggest that certain environmental mols. could potently inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis, which could be a new link between environment and developmental disorders.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsFeitrnK&md5=d4c162c3260a61a08beb340e13508435

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      Hrubec, T. C. ; Seguin, R. P. ; Xu, L. ; Cortopassi, G. A. ; Datta, S. ; Hanlon, A. L. ; Lozano, A. J. ; McDonald, V. A. ; Healy, C. A. ; Anderson, T. C. ; Musse, N. A. ; Williams, R. T. Altered toxicological endpoints in humans from common quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant exposure. Toxicology Reports 2021, 8 , 646– 656,  DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.03.006

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      Altered toxicological endpoints in humans from common quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant exposure

      Hrubec, Terry C.; Seguin, Ryan P.; Xu, Libin; Cortopassi, Gino A.; Datta, Sandipan; Hanlon, Alexandra L.; Lozano, Alicia J.; McDonald, Valerie A.; Healy, Claire A.; Anderson, Tyler C.; Musse, Najaha A.; Williams, Richard T.

      Toxicology Reports (2021), 8 (), 646-656CODEN: TROEF9; ISSN:2214-7500. (Elsevier B.V.)

      Humans are frequently exposed to Quaternary Ammonium Compds. (QACs). QACs are ubiquitously used in medical settings, restaurants, and homes as cleaners and disinfectants. Despite their prevalence, nothing is known about the health effects assocd. with chronic low-level exposure. Chronic QAC toxicity, only recently identified in mice, resulted in developmental, reproductive, and immune dysfunction. Cell based studies indicate increased inflammation, decreased mitochondrial function, and disruption of cholesterol synthesis. If these findings translate to human toxicity, multiple physiol. processes could be affected. This study tested whether QAC concns. could be detected in the blood of 43 human volunteers, and whether QAC concns. influenced markers of inflammation, mitochondrial function, and cholesterol synthesis. QAC concns. were detected in 80% of study participants. Blood QACs were assocd. with increase in inflammatory cytokines, decreased mitochondrial function, and disruption of cholesterol homeostasis in a dose dependent manner. This is the first study to measure QACs in human blood, and also the first to demonstrate statistically significant relationships between blood QAC and meaningful health related biomarkers. Addnl., the results are timely in light of the increased QAC disinfectant exposure occurring due to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. This study found that 80% of study participants contained QACs in their blood; and that markers of inflammation, mitochondrial function, and sterol homeostasis varied with blood QAC concn.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtVOmurjO&md5=3ce457d528fb10a3e58e84aaecfce8ad

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      Dumas, O. ; Wiley, A. S. ; Quinot, C. ; Varraso, R. ; Zock, J. ; Henneberger, P. K. ; Speizer, F. E. ; Le Moual, N. ; Camargo, C. A. Occupational exposure to disinfectants and asthma control in U.S. nurses. Eur. Respir. J. 2017, 50 , 1700237– 1700247,  DOI: 10.1183/13993003.00237-2017

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      Occupational exposure to disinfectants and asthma control in US nurses

      Dumas, Orianne; Wiley, Aleta S.; Quinot, Catherine; Varraso, Raphaeelle; Zock, Jan-Paul; Henneberger, Paul K.; Speizer, Frank E.; Le Moual, Nicole; Camargo, Carlos A. Jr

      European Respiratory Journal (2017), 50 (4), 1700237/1-1700237/10CODEN: ERJOEI; ISSN:1399-3003. (European Respiratory Society)

      Disinfectant use has been assocd. with adverse respiratory effects among health-care workers. However, the specific harmful agents have not been elucidated. We examd. the assocn. between occupational exposure to disinfectants and asthma control in the Nurses' Health Study II, a large cohort of female nurses. Nurses with asthma were invited in 2014 to complete two questionnaires on their current occupation and asthma (response rate 80%). Asthma control was defined by the Asthma Control Test (ACT). Exposure to major disinfectants was evaluated by a job-task-exposure matrix (JTEM). Analyses included 4102 nurses with asthma (mean age 58 years). Asthma control was poor (ACT score 16-19) in 12% of nurses and very poor (ACT score ≤15) in 6% of nurses. Use of disinfectants to clean medical instruments 19% exposed was assocd. with poorly OR 1.37; 95% CI 1.05-1.79 and very poorly OR 1.88, 95% CI 1.38-2.56 controlled asthma trend=0.004, after adjustment for potential confounders. Using JTEM ests., exposure to formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, hypochlorite bleach, hydrogen peroxide and enzymic cleaners was assocd. with poor asthma control (all ptrend<0.05); exposure to quaternary ammonium compds. and alc. was not. Use of several disinfectants was assocd. with poor asthma control. Our findings suggest targets for future efforts to prevent worsening of asthma control in health-care workers.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXitVOqs77M&md5=62b13157b89c99c3a26d9d02d82c6d5c

  53. 53

      Holm, S. M. ; Leonard, V. ; Durrani, T. ; Miller, M. D. Do we know how best to disinfect child care sites in the United States? A review of available disinfectant efficacy data and health risks of the major disinfectant classes. Am. J. Infect. Control 2019, 47 , 82– 91,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2018.06.013

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      Do we know how best to disinfect child care sites in the United States? A review of available disinfectant efficacy data and health risks of the major disinfectant classes

      Holm Stephanie M; Leonard Victoria; Durrani Timur; Miller Mark D

      American journal of infection control (2019), 47 (1), 82-91 ISSN:.

      BACKGROUND: Children in child care settings have a high infectious burden. They are frequently exposed to sanitizing and disinfecting agents, whose toxicities have not been studied in these settings. Current guidance on the preferred disinfection agents for child care is vague. METHODS: This article combines 2 different sources of information: the Environmental Protection Agency registration data on the efficacy of hospital-grade disinfectants and a review of the research on the toxicities of the most common of these disinfectants to summarize information that could be used for more evidence-based early care and education disinfection regulations and guidelines. RESULTS: Coverage of these organisms varied both between disinfectant classes (defined by active ingredient), as well as within classes. The 3 most common active ingredients in the database-quaternary ammonias, bleaches, and hydrogen peroxides-had 251, 63, and 31 products, respectively. Quaternary ammonias and bleaches are both known asthmagens, with the potential for toxic gas release when mixed. Quaternary ammonias may also cause reproductive toxicity. Disinfectant-grade peroxides have relatively low inhalational toxicity. CONCLUSIONS: A clear rationale is needed to establish policies for determining preferable disinfection products for use in child care settings, based on efficacy against relevant pathogens, toxicity, ease of use, and cost. When other factors are equal, the use of peroxide-based disinfectant products is recommended to minimize inhalational toxicity.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3c3ksFKnsQ%253D%253D&md5=6a954e37f8a2b258767eeeea491960ae

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      Mucci, N. ; Dugheri, S. ; Bonari, A. ; Farioli, A. ; Rapisarda, V. ; Garzaro, G. ; Cappelli, G. ; Arcangeli, G. Health risk assessment related to hydrogen peroxide presence in the workplace atmosphere - analytical methods evaluation for an innovative monitoring protocol. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 2020, 33 , 137– 150,  DOI: 10.13075/ijomeh.1896.01508

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      Health risk assessment related to hydrogen peroxide presence in the workplace atmosphere - analytical methods evaluation for an innovative monitoring protocol

      Mucci Nicola; Cappelli Giovanni; Arcangeli Giulio; Dugheri Stefano; Bonari Alessandro; Farioli Andrea; Rapisarda Venerando; Garzaro Giacomo

      International journal of occupational medicine and environmental health (2020), 33 (2), 137-150 ISSN:.

      OBJECTIVES: Hydrogen peroxide (HP) accounts for 15% of the total global chemical revenue. According to the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, the HP concentration immediately dangerous to human life or health is 75 ppm. Operators exposed to HP should pay attention when choosing the monitoring technique that should be specific and sensitive enough to discriminate the exposure levels from background concentrations. In order to assess the long- and short-term exposure to HP in disinfection processes, the authors compared 6 industrial hygiene monitoring methods to evaluate their efficiency in measuring airborne HP concentrations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Airborne HP concentrations were evaluated using an on-fiber triphenylphosphine solid-phase microextraction method, and they were compared with those obtained using a 13-mm Swinnex titanium oxysulfate filter holder and 4 portable direct-reading electrochemical sensors. A survey carried out in wood pulp bleaching, food and beverage disinfection processing, and in a hospital department to reduce the risk of spreading nosocomial infections, was performed during routine operations to access the risk of HP occupational exposure. RESULTS: Through the generation of HP gaseous dynamic atmospheres (0.1-85 ppm), the authors evaluated the consistency of the results obtained using the 6 methods described. The monitoring campaigns showed that the increase in HP could be relatively high (until 67 ppm) in food and beverage processing. CONCLUSIONS: In the authors' opinion, the current 8-h time-weighted average limits of 1 ppm for HP do not reflect the actual risk; a short-term exposure limit would, therefore, provide a much better protection. 2020;33(2):137-50.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB387ktlKlsg%253D%253D&md5=0331df1a8b343f0cff88c1cab62f15cc

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      Slaughter, R. J. ; Mason, R. W. ; Beasley, D. M. G. ; Vale, J. A. ; Schep, L. J. Isopropanol poisoning. Clin. Toxicol. 2014, 52 , 470– 478,  DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2014.914527

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      Isopropanol poisoning

      Slaughter R J; Mason R W; Beasley D M G; Vale J A; Schep L J

      Clinical toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) (2014), 52 (5), 470-8 ISSN:.

      INTRODUCTION: Isopropanol is a clear, colorless liquid with a fruity odor and a mild bitter taste. Most commonly found domestically as rubbing alcohol, isopropanol is also found in numerous household and commercial products including cleaners, disinfectants, antifreezes, cosmetics, solvents, inks, and pharmaceuticals. AIM: The aim of this review is to critically review the epidemiology, toxicokinetics, mechanisms of toxicity, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of isopropanol poisoning. METHODS: OVID MEDLINE and ISI Web of Science were searched to November 2013 using the words "isopropanol", "isopropyl alcohol", "2-propanol", "propan-2-ol", and "rubbing alcohol" combined with the keywords "poisoning", "poison", "toxicity", "ingestion", "adverse effects", "overdose", or "intoxication". These searches identified 232 citations, which were then screened via their abstract to identify relevant articles referring specifically to the epidemiology, toxicokinetics, mechanisms of toxicity, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of isopropanol poisoning; 102 were relevant. Further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports, and internet resources. These additional searches produced eight non-duplicate relevant citations. EPIDEMIOLOGY: The majority of isopropanol exposures are unintentional and occur in children less than 6 years of age. Although isopropanol poisoning appears to be a reasonably common occurrence, deaths are rare. TOXICOKINETICS: Isopropanol is rapidly absorbed following ingestion with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 30 min. It can also be absorbed following inhalation or dermal exposure. Isopropanol is widely distributed with a volume of distribution of 0.45-0.55 L/kg. Isopropanol is metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase to acetone, acetol and methylglyoxal, propylene glycol, acetate, and formate with conversion of these metabolites to glucose and other products of intermediary metabolism. The elimination of isopropanol is predominantly renal, though some pulmonary excretion of isopropanol and acetone occurs. In one case 20% of the absorbed dose was eliminated unchanged in urine, with the remainder excreted as acetone and metabolites of acetone. The elimination half-life of isopropanol is between 2.5 and 8.0 h, whereas elimination of acetone is slower with a half-life following isopropanol ingestion of between 7.7 and 27 h. MECHANISMS OF TOXICITY: While the exact mechanism of action of isopropanol has not been fully elucidated, brain stem depression is thought to be the predominant mechanism. While the clinical effects are thought to be mostly due to isopropanol, acetone may also contribute. CLINICAL FEATURES: The major features of severe poisoning are due to CNS and respiratory depression, shock, and circulatory collapse. The most common metabolic effects are an increased osmol (osmolal) gap, ketonemia, and ketonuria. Diagnosis. Poisoning can be diagnosed using the measurement of isopropanol serum concentrations, though these may not be readily available. Diagnosis is therefore more typically made on the basis of the patient's history and clinical presentation. An osmol gap, ketonemia, and/or ketonuria without metabolic acidosis, along with a fruity or sweet odor on the breath and CNS depression support the diagnosis. Management. Supportive care is the mainstay of management with primary emphasis on respiratory and cardiovascular support. Hemodialysis enhances elimination of isopropanol and acetone and should be considered in very severe poisoning. CONCLUSIONS: Severe isopropanol poisoning results in CNS and respiratory depression and circulatory collapse. Treatment primarily consists of symptom-directed supportive care. Although hemodialysis increases the elimination of isopropanol and acetone substantially, it should only be considered in severe life-threatening poisonings. Patients usually make a full recovery provided they receive prompt supportive care.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2cjhsFantA%253D%253D&md5=f7f6f6154f2a394be7d13545a242842f

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      Boyacı, E. ; Pawliszyn, J. Micelle Assisted Thin-Film Solid Phase Microextraction: A New Approach for Determination of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in Environmental Samples. Anal. Chem. 2014, 86 , 8916– 8921,  DOI: 10.1021/ac5015673

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      Micelle Assisted Thin-Film Solid Phase Microextraction: A New Approach for Determination of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in Environmental Samples

      Boyaci, Ezel; Pawliszyn, Janusz

      Analytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) (2014), 86 (18), 8916-8921CODEN: ANCHAM; ISSN:0003-2700. (American Chemical Society)

      Detn. of quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) often is considered to be a challenging undertaking owing to secondary interactions of the analytes' permanently charged quaternary ammonium head or hydrophobic tail with the used labware. Here, for the 1st time, a micelle assisted thin-film solid phase microextn. (TF-SPME) using a zwitterionic detergent 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS) as a matrix modifier is introduced as an approach for in-lab. sample prepn. of the challenging compds. The proposed micelle assisted TF-SPME method offers suppression/enhancement free electrospray ionization of analytes in mass spectrometric detection, minimal interaction of the micelles with the TF-SPME coating, and chromatog. stationary phase and anal. free of secondary interactions. Also, the matrix modifier has multiple functions; when its concn. is found below the crit. micelle concn. (CMC), the matrix modifier primarily acts as a surface deactivator; above its CMC, it acts as a stabilizer for QACs. Addnl., shorter equil. extn. times in the presence of the modifier demonstrated that micelles also assist in the transfer of analytes from the bulk of the sample to the surface of the coating. The developed micelle assisted TF-SPME protocol using the 96-blade system requires only 30 min of extn. and 15 min of desorption. Together with a conditioning step (15 min), the entire method is 60 min; considering the advantage of using the 96-blade system, if all the blades in the brush were used, the sample prepn. time per sample is 0.63 min. Also, the recoveries for all analytes with the developed method range within 80.2-97.3%; as such, this method can be considered an open bed solid phase extn. The proposed method was successfully validated using real samples.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhtl2qsLjI&md5=a232eda1321313973ed1de97fb205b33

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      Wee, V. T. ; Kennedy, J. M. Determination of Trace Levels of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in River Water by Liquid Chromatography with Conductometric Detection. Anal. Chem. 1982, 54 , 1631– 1633,  DOI: 10.1021/ac00246a037

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      Determination of trace levels of quaternary ammonium compounds in river water by liquid chromatography with conductometric detection

      Wee, Victorio T.; Kennedy, Julie M.

      Analytical Chemistry (1982), 54 (9), 1631-3CODEN: ANCHAM; ISSN:0003-2700.

      An anal. method was developed for isolation and concn. of trace levels of long-chain alkyl quaternary ammonium compds. from river water. The extd. quaternary ammonium compds. are sepd. and quantified by the use of high-performance liq. chromatog. with a cond. detector. The unique feature of this method is the chromatog. system. For the 1st time, non-UV absorbing long-chain alkyl quaternaries are detd. in submicrogram quantities without any form of derivatization. In addn., ion chromatog. is performed in a nonaq. medium, without ion pairing, and in the absence of a suppressor column. The new method was used to det. 2 non-UV absorbing quaternaries, ditallowdimethylammonium chloride and dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride [112-00-5], and 2 UV-absorbing quaternaries, stearyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride [122-19-0] and 1-hexadecylpyridinium chloride [123-03-5], in several river waters.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaL38XksVeqtbY%253D&md5=861cf4b7dd5e886740bfd516d2e2f759

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      LeBouf, R. F. ; Virji, M. A. ; Ranpara, A. ; Stefaniak, A. B. Air and surface sampling method for assessing exposures to quaternary ammonium compounds using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Annals of Work Exposures and Health 2017, 61 , 724– 736,  DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxx037

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      Air and surface sampling method for assessing exposures to quaternary ammonium compounds using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

      LeBouf, Ryan F.; Virji, Mohammed Abbas; Ranpara, Anand; Stefaniak, Aleksandr B.

      Annals of Work Exposures and Health (2017), 61 (6), 724-736CODEN: AWEHAR; ISSN:2398-7316. (Oxford University Press)

      This method was designed for sampling select quaternary ammonium (quat) compds. in air or on surfaces followed by anal. using ultraperformance liq. chromatog. tandem mass spectrometry. Target quats were benzethonium chloride, didecyldimethylammonium bromide, benzyldimethyldodecylammonium chloride, benzyldimethyltetradecylammonium chloride, and benzyldimethylhexadecylammonium chloride. For air sampling, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) filters are recommended for 15-min to 24-h sampling. For surface sampling, Pro-wipe 880 (PW) media was chosen. Samples were extd. in 60:40 acetonitrile:0.1% formic acid for 1 h on an orbital shaker. Method detection limits range from 0.3 to 2 ng/mL depending on media and analyte. Matrix effects of media are minimized through the use of multiple reaction monitoring vs. selected ion recording. Upper confidence limits on accuracy meet the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 25% criterion for PTFE and PW media for all analytes. Using PTFE and PW analyzed with multiple reaction monitoring, the method quantifies levels among the different quats compds. with high precision (<10% relative std. deviation) and low bias (<11%). The method is sensitive enough with very low method detection limits to capture quats on air sampling filters with only a 15-min sample duration with a max. assessed storage time of 103 days before sample extn. This method will support future exposure assessment and quant. epidemiol. studies to explore exposure-response relationships and establish levels of quats exposures assocd. with adverse health effects.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXjtlKmtL8%253D&md5=88c30b79fff4cabf2e3c4df35ae4380b

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      Serra-Mora, P. ; Muñoz-Ortuño, M. ; Gallego-Prieto, P. ; Verdú-Andrés, J. ; Herráez-Hernández, R. ; Campíns-Falcó, P. Cotton swabs supported in-situ assay for quaternary ammonium compounds residues in effluents and surfaces. Food Control 2018, 84 , 419– 428,  DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.08.026

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      Cotton swabs supported in-situ assay for quaternary ammonium compounds residues in effluents and surfaces

      Serra-Mora, P.; Munoz-Ortuno, M.; Gallego-Prieto, P.; Verdu-Andres, J.; Herraez-Hernandez, R.; Campins-Falco, P.

      Food Control (2018), 84 (), 419-428CODEN: FOOCEV; ISSN:0956-7135. (Elsevier Ltd.)

      Cellulose paper and cotton swabs have been tested as sampling, reaction and measurement media for quaternary ammonium compds. (QACs) using the reagent Chromo Azurol S in the presence of aluminum cations (CAS-Al). On the basis of the results obtained a new method is proposed for the anal. of QACs in water samples which only entails the successive immersion of swabs into 1 mL of the samples, 1 mL of a soln. of CAS-Al for the formation of a ternary blue complex, and 1 mL of water to remove the excess of reagent. The method can be used for the visual on site detection of QACs in effluents, as well as for their quantification within the 3.62-36.2 mg/L range through the direct measurement of the reflectance diffuse of the cotton tips. The proposed approach has been validated for the identification and quantification of QACs in water, and applied to effluents generated by the dairy industry. Moreover, the proposed methodol. can be also adapted to the on-site detection of residues of QACs in surfaces at sub μg/cm2 levels.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsV2rsbjJ&md5=8df521bdb3e63c94570721709f0cf629

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      Balz, E.; Smith, K.; Olson, E.; Tischler, S. U.S. Patent 10,514,367 B2, 2019.

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      Simons, A. K. ; Handy, R. G. ; Sleeth, D. K. ; Pahler, L. F. ; Thiese, M. S. A comparison study between passive and active workplace personal air monitoring techniques for airborne isopropyl alcohol concentrations. J. Chem. Health Saf. 2017, 24 , 36– 43,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jchas.2017.05.002

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      Ghimenti, S. ; Tabucchi, S. ; Bellagambi, F. G. ; Lomonaco, T. ; Onor, M. ; Trivella, M. G. ; Fuoco, R. ; Di Francesco, F. Determination of sevoflurane and isopropyl alcohol in exhaled breath by thermal desorption gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for exposure assessment of hospital staff. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2015, 106 , 218– 223,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2014.11.052

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      Determination of sevoflurane and isopropyl alcohol in exhaled breath by thermal desorption gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for exposure assessment of hospital staff

      Ghimenti, Silvia; Tabucchi, Sara; Bellagambi, Francesca G.; Lomonaco, Tommaso; Onor, Massimo; Trivella, Maria Giovanna; Fuoco, Roger; Di Francesco, Fabio

      Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis (2015), 106 (), 218-223CODEN: JPBADA; ISSN:0731-7085. (Elsevier B.V.)

      Volatile anesthetics and disinfection chems. pose ubiquitous inhalation and dermal exposure risks in hospital and clinic environments. This work demonstrated a specific, non-invasive breath biomonitoring method to assess worker exposure to sevoflurane (SEV) anesthetic, documenting its metabolite, hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP), and measuring exposures to isopropanol (IPA) dermal disinfection fluid. Methods were based on breath sample collection in Nalophan bags, followed by aliquot transfer to an adsorption tube, and thermal desorption/gas chromatog./mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS) anal. Ambient IPA concns. were also monitored. These methods could be generalized to other common volatile chems. in medical environments. Calibration curves were linear (r2 = 0.999) in the studied ranges: 0.01-1000 ppbv for SEV, 0.02-1700 ppbv for IPA, and 0.001-0.1 ppbv for HFIP. Instrument detection limits were 10 pptv for IPA and 5 pptv for SEV, both estd. by extd. ion-TIC chromatograms; the HFIP min. detectable concn. was 0.5 pptv, estd. in selected ion monitoring acquisition mode. Methods were applied to hospital operating room and blood draw clinic workers. SEV and HFIP occurred in all workers at concns. of 0.7-18 and 0.002-0.024 ppbv for SEV and HFIP, resp. A correlation between IPA ambient air and breath concns. confirmed the inhalation exposure pathway (r = 0.95, p <0.001); breath-borne IPA was measured as high as 1500 ppbv. The method is easy to implement and valuable for screening exposure to common hospital chems. Although the documented overall exposures were generally below health concern levels in this limited study, outliers were obsd. which indicated acute exposure potential.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXlvFOmtA%253D%253D&md5=8dbd4ef8870ff571322dc108d4338312

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      Hecht, G. ; Héry, M. ; Hubert, G. ; Subra, I. Simultaneous sampling of peroxyacetic acid and hydrogen peroxide in workplace atmospheres. Annals of Occupational Hygiene 2004, 48 , 715– 721,  DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/meh067

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      Simultaneous sampling of peroxyacetic acid and hydrogen peroxide in workplace atmospheres

      Hecht, G.; Hery, M.; Hubert, G.; Subra, I.

      Annals of Occupational Hygiene (2004), 48 (8), 715-721CODEN: AOHYA3; ISSN:0003-4878. (Oxford University Press)

      The use of peroxyacetic acid (PAA) in the disinfection processes in the food industry or for medical purposes is increasing. As it is the product of the reaction of HOAc (AA) and H2O2 (HP) and coexists with them, and given the fact that the chem. properties of these two substances are not very different from PAA, the sampling and anal. of this substance in working atms. is difficult. A specific sampling device was developed. It is composed of: (i) a cassette with quartz fiber filters impregnated with Ti oxysulfate hydrate for the sampling of HP followed by; (ii) a tube filled with silica gel soaked with Me p-tolylsulfoxide for the sampling of PAA. The anal. of this silica gel was performed by liq. chromatog. with UV detection of the Me p-sulfone generated by the sampling of PAA. The conservation of the sampling media (before and after sampling) and its efficiency were also checked. From the results of sampling campaigns performed in various workplaces, the relative contributions of PAA, AA and HP to an exposure index, taking into account the atm. concns. and the threshold limit values, were established. This calcn. shows that the simultaneous detn. of PAA and HP, which the method presented in this paper allows, provides a fairly good estn. of the exposure.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXhtFSgtbjP&md5=bfb09525b8f79cfb3fae9d88004842b4

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      Xiao, J. ; Wang, M. ; Pang, Z. ; Dai, L. ; Lu, J. ; Zou, J. Simultaneous spectrophotometric determination of peracetic acid and the coexistent hydrogen peroxide using potassium iodide as the indicator. Anal. Methods 2019, 11 , 1930– 1938,  DOI: 10.1039/C8AY02772B

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      Simultaneous spectrophotometric determination of peracetic acid and the coexistent hydrogen peroxide using potassium iodide as the indicator

      Xiao, Junyang; Wang, Mengyun; Pang, Zijun; Dai, Lin; Lu, Jinfeng; Zou, Jing

      Analytical Methods (2019), 11 (14), 1930-1938CODEN: AMNEGX; ISSN:1759-9679. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

      Recently, increasing attention has been paid for using com. peracetic acid (PAA) soln. as an efficient disinfectant or a strong oxidant in water treatment. Simultaneous detn. of PAA and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is vital because PAA soln. is commonly available as a mixed soln. contg. the peroxides PAA and H2O2. In this study, a simple, rapid and reliable spectrophotometric method for the simultaneous detn. of PAA and H2O2 was developed. This method was based on the rapid oxidn. of excess potassium iodide by PAA and H2O2 in the presence of ammonium molybdate to yield yellow-colored triiodide ions (I3-) that could be quant. measured using an UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The absorption of generated I3- at 350 nm increased linearly (R2 > 0.999) with the concns. of total peroxides and PAA in the range of 0-70 μM. The sensitivities were resp. measured to be as high as 2.596 × 104 M-1 cm-1 for total peroxides and 2.616 × 104 M-1 cm-1 for PAA, while the corresponding limits of detection were calcd. to be as low as 0.19 μM and 0.18 μM. The concn. of the H2O2 coexisting in PAA soln. was obtained by subtracting the concn. of PAA from the concn. of total peroxides. The concns. of total peroxides, PAA and H2O2 in practical water samples measured with this proposed method were in good agreement with the values measured with the earlier reported spectrophotometric method using N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine as the indicator. Therefore, this proposed spectrophotometric method could be considered as an alternative method for the simultaneous detn. of PAA and H2O2 coexisting in PAA soln.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXks1eltLw%253D&md5=7bda7cd59b51605cea9be0233571763a

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      Boyce, J. M. ; Sullivan, L. ; Booker, A. ; Baker, J. Quaternary Ammonium Disinfectant Issues Encountered in an Environmental Services Department. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2016, 37 , 340– 342,  DOI: 10.1017/ice.2015.299

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      Quaternary Ammonium Disinfectant Issues Encountered in an Environmental Services Department

      Boyce John M; Sullivan Linda; Booker Arica; Baker James

      Infection control and hospital epidemiology (2016), 37 (3), 340-2 ISSN:.

      We identified several factors affecting the use of quaternary ammonium-based (Quat) disinfectant in our facility. Microfiber wipers, cotton towels, and 1 of 2 types of disposable wipes soaked in a Quat disinfectant revealed significant binding of the disinfectant. Concentrations of Quat delivered by automated disinfectant dispensers varied widely.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC28nkvFanug%253D%253D&md5=91bdb9babf272491b394ac2844c5b94c

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      Weber, D. J. ; Rutala, W. A. ; Sickbert-Bennett, E. E. Outbreaks associated with contaminated antiseptics and disinfectants. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51 , 4217– 4224,  DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00138-07

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      Outbreaks associated with contaminated antiseptics and disinfectants

      Weber, David J.; Rutala, William A.; Sickbert-Bennett, Emily E.

      Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (2007), 51 (12), 4217-4224CODEN: AMACCQ; ISSN:0066-4804. (American Society for Microbiology)

      A review on nosocomial outbreaks assocd. with the use of a microbiol. germicide and focuses on the currently recommended germicides.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXhsVWisLbO&md5=d89d5461684a5349e9d55f396f27c8a1

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      Hinchliffe, D. J. ; Condon, B. D. ; Slopek, R. P. ; Reynolds, M. The adsorption of alkyl-dimethyl-benzyl-ammonium chloride onto cotton nonwoven hydroentangled substrates at the solid–liquid interface is minimized by additive chemistries. Text. Res. J. 2017, 87 , 70– 80,  DOI: 10.1177/0040517515622154

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      The adsorption of alkyl-dimethylbenzyl- ammonium chloride onto cotton nonwoven hydroentangled substrates at the solid-liquid interface is minimized by additive chemistries

      Hinchliffe, Doug J.; Condon, Brian D.; Slopek, Ryan P.; Reynolds, Michael

      Textile Research Journal (2017), 87 (1), 70-80CODEN: TRJOA9; ISSN:0040-5175. (Sage Publications Ltd.)

      Quaternary ammonium compds., commonly referred to as quats, are cationic surfactants widely used as the active biocidal ingredient for disposable disinfecting wipes. The cationic nature of quats results in a strong ionic interaction and adsorption onto wipes materials that have an anionic surface charge, such as cellulosic materials, including cotton. The degree of adsorption of quats onto cotton nonwovens is affected by pretreatment of the substrate, more specifically whether it is a greige or a scoured and bleached fabric. This study examd. the effect of varying the chem. and phys. properties of solns. on the adsorption of the quat alkyl-dimethyl-benzyl-ammonium chloride (ADBAC) onto greige and scoured and bleached cotton nonwoven fabrics produced by hydroentanglement. At a const. surfactant concn., the liquor ratio, pH, temp., and concns. of various electrolytes in the soln. were varied and the amt. of ADBAC depleted from soln. was detd. over time. The results suggested that a more alk. soln. increased the amt. of ADBAC adsorbed onto both cotton nonwoven fabrics, while a more acidic soln. reduced ADBAC adsorption. Likewise, increasing the temp. and concn. of salts in the soln. reduced the adsorption of ADBAC onto the cotton fabrics. The presence of nonionic surfactants or low mol. wt. quats also reduced ADBAC adsorption onto cotton fabrics in a concn.-dependent manner. The results of this study will provide guidance for optimized chem. formulations compatible with disposable disinfecting cotton-based wipes, cloths, and other cotton-contg. implements intended for use in cleaning and disinfecting applications.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXktFWrtrk%253D&md5=cd4b51bfd02da70cf1e98f4e6e75e0ce

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      Hinchliffe, D. J. ; Condon, B. D. ; Madison, C. A. ; Reynolds, M. ; Hron, R. J. An optimized co-formulation minimized quaternary ammonium compounds adsorption onto raw cotton disposable disinfecting wipes and maintained efficacy against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Text. Res. J. 2018, 88 , 2329– 2338,  DOI: 10.1177/0040517517720505

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      An optimized co-formulation minimized quaternary ammonium compounds adsorption onto raw cotton disposable disinfecting wipes and maintained efficacy against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

      Hinchliffe, D. J.; Condon, B. D.; Madison, C. A.; Reynolds, M.; Hron, R. J.

      Textile Research Journal (2018), 88 (20), 2329-2338CODEN: TRJOA9; ISSN:0040-5175. (Sage Publications Ltd.)

      The transmission of infectious agents can occur through secondary routes by contact with contaminated inanimate objects in clin. and food service settings. Effective disinfection of exposed surfaces can aid in reducing secondary transmission of infectious agents. Quaternary ammonium compds. (quats) are biocides widely used as active ingredients in disinfecting solns. and are effective against a wide range of microorganisms, including those with antibiotic resistance. Cellulosic fibers such as cotton are desirable as disposable substrates for the application of disinfecting solns., since they have good absorbency and cleaning properties and are sustainable and biodegradable. However, cotton fibers deplete quats from soln. through strong ionic interactions at the solid-liq. interface, thereby reducing the amt. of quat deposited onto a surface for effective disinfection. In this study, we used response surface methodol. to model the depletion of the quat, alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC), onto cotton wipe substrates in the presence of chem. compds. that interfered or competed with the ionic interactions between the quat and the cotton fiber surface. Preliminary efficacy testing successfully demonstrated that an optimized disinfecting ADBAC co-formulation applied with a raw cotton disposable wipe maintained efficacy against representative gram neg. (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and gram pos. (Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria compared to a control disinfecting soln. contg. only ADBAC. Our optimized disinfecting ADBAC co-formulation remained efficacious against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, demonstrating for the first time that quat adsorption onto cotton substrates can be minimized and efficacy maintained with inexpensive added chemistries.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhvV2jtrfM&md5=3170bfb107ab6a75daaeff8d3b1aab67

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      Jo, H. ; West, A. M. ; Teska, P. J. ; Oliver, H. F. ; Howarter, J. A. Assessment of early onset surface damage from accelerated disinfection protocol. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control 2019, 8 , 24– 34,  DOI: 10.1186/s13756-019-0467-9

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      Assessment of early onset surface damage from accelerated disinfection protocol

      Jo Hyungyung; Howarter John A; West Alyssa M; Oliver Haley F; Teska Peter J; Howarter John A

      Antimicrobial resistance and infection control (2019), 8 (), 24 ISSN:.

      Background: The objective of this study was to evaluate the extent and potential mechanisms of early onset surface damage from simulated wiping typical of six-months of routine disinfection and to assess the subsequent microbial risk of surfaces damaged by disinfectants. Methods: Eight common material surfaces were exposed to three disinfectants and a neutral cleaner (neutral cleaner, quaternary ammonium, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite) in accelerated aging tests to simulate a long-term disinfection routine. Materials were also immersed in dilute and concentrated chemical solutions to induce surface damage. Surfaces were chemically and physically characterized to determine extent of surface damage. Bactericidal efficacy testing was performed on the Quat-based disinfectant using a modified version of EPA standard operating procedure MB-25-02. Results: The wiping protocol increased surface roughness for some material surfaces due to mechanical abrasion of the wiping cloth. The increased roughness did not correlate with changes in bactericidal efficacy. Chemical damage was observed for some surface-disinfectant combinations. The greatest observed effects from disinfectant exposure was in changes in wettability or water contact angle. Conclusions: Early onset surface damage was observed in chemical and physical characterization methods. These high-throughput material measurement methods were effective at assessing nanoscale disinfectant-surface compatibility which may go undetected though routine macroscale testing.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3cfgsVCntg%253D%253D&md5=83ba3a62b75e7ee8b30a096673f3516f

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      Liao, L. ; Xiao, W. ; Zhao, M. ; Yu, X. ; Wang, H. ; Wang, Q. ; Chu, S. ; Cui, Y. Can N95 Respirators Be Reused after Disinfection? How Many Times?. ACS Nano 2020, 14 , 6348– 6356,  DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03597

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      Can N95 Respirators Be Reused after Disinfection? How Many Times?

      Liao, Lei; Xiao, Wang; Zhao, Mervin; Yu, Xuanze; Wang, Haotian; Wang, Qiqi; Chu, Steven; Cui, Yi

      ACS Nano (2020), 14 (5), 6348-6356CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)

      The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to a major shortage of N95 respirators, which are essential for protecting healthcare professionals and the general public who may come into contact with the virus. Thus, it is essential to det. how we can reuse respirators and other personal protective equipment in these urgent times. We investigated multiple commonly used disinfection schemes on media with particle filtration efficiency of 95%. Heating was recently found to inactivate the virus in soln. within 5 min at 70°C and is among the most scalable, user-friendly methods for viral disinfection. We found that heat (≤85°C) under various humidities (≤100% relative humidity, RH) was the most promising, nondestructive method for the preservation of filtration properties in meltblown fabrics as well as N95-grade respirators. At 85°C, 30% RH, we were able to perform 50 cycles of heat treatment without significant changes in the filtration efficiency. At low humidity or dry conditions, temps. up to 100°C were not found to alter the filtration efficiency significantly within 20 cycles of treatment. UV irradn. was a secondary choice, which was able to withstand 10 cycles of treatment and showed small degrdn. by 20 cycles. However, UV can potentially impact the material strength and subsequent sealing of respirators. Finally, treatments involving liqs. and vapors require caution, as steam, alc., and household bleach all may lead to degrdn. of the filtration efficiency, leaving the user vulnerable to the viral aerosols.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXosVCmt7o%253D&md5=5fc1b3a9b67826faa66784801f5cf1d8

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      Mikdam, A. ; Colin, X. ; Minard, G. ; Billon, N. ; Maurin, R. A kinetic model for predicting the oxidative degradation of additive free polyethylene in bleach desinfected water. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2017, 146 , 78– 94,  DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2017.09.020

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      A kinetic model for predicting the oxidative degradation of additive free polyethylene in bleach desinfected water

      Mikdam, Aicha; Colin, Xavier; Minard, Gaelle; Billon, Noelle; Maurin, Romain

      Polymer Degradation and Stability (2017), 146 (), 78-94CODEN: PDSTDW; ISSN:0141-3910. (Elsevier Ltd.)

      The chem. interactions between additive free PE and bleach were investigated by FTIR spectrophotometry and viscosimetry in molten state after immersion (for a max. duration of one hundred days) in bleach solns. maintained at a temp. of 60 °C, a free chlorine concn. of 100 ppm, and a pH = 4, 5 or 7. It was found that the polymer undergoes a severe oxidn. from the earliest days of exposure in a superficial layer of about 50-100 μm thick, almost independent of the pH value. In this layer, oxidn. leads to the formation and accumulation of various carbonyl products (mostly ketones and carboxylic acids) but also, after about 2-3 wk of exposure, to a dramatic decrease in the av. molar mass due to the large predominance of chain scissions over crosslinking. It was also found that the oxidn. rate is max. at pH = 5, and of the same order of magnitude at pH = 4 and 7. Based on the equil. diagram giving access to the relative predominance of the three main chem. species as a function of the pH value of the bleach soln., it was assumed that oxidn. is initiated by radical species coming firstly from hypochlorous acid (ClOH) and secondarily from chlorine (Cl2), given that hypochlorite ions (ClO-) are totally insol. into the PE matrix. In addn., for explaining the surprisingly large value of the oxidized layer thickness despite the high reactivity of the involved radicals, it was assumed that ClOH and Cl2 do not decomp. into radicals in the water phase, but migrate deeply into the PE matrix prior to dissocg. into Cl· and HO· radicals and then, initiating a radical chain oxidn. The validity of the kinetic model derived from this scenario was successfully checked by comparing the numerical simulations with all the exptl. data collected in this study. This model predicts the general trends of the oxidn. kinetics and its dependence on the pH value, but also gives access to the transport properties of the chlorinated disinfectants and their radical species, and the rate consts. of the radical attack.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhs1ChsbjK&md5=087dd0f7b7e9b8ac05c7917cb0f5826c

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      Kelkar, V. P. ; Rolsky, C. B. ; Pant, A. ; Green, M. D. ; Tongay, S. ; Halden, R. U. Chemical and physical changes of microplastics during sterilization by chlorination. Water Res. 2019, 163 , 114871– 114877,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.114871

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      Chemical and physical changes of microplastics during sterilization by chlorination

      Kelkar, Varun P.; Rolsky, Charles B.; Pant, Anupum; Green, Matthew D.; Tongay, Sefaattin; Halden, Rolf U.

      Water Research (2019), 163 (), 114871CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)

      Wastewater treatment plants are known to release microplastics that have been detected in aquatic and terrestrial organisms constituting part of the human diet. Chlorination of wastewater-borne microplastics was hypothesized to induce chem. and phys. changes detectable by Raman spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). In the lab., virgin plastics (∼0.05 × 2 × 2 mm) were exposed to differing sterilization conditions representative of dosages used in the disinfection of drinking water, wastewater, and heavily contaminated surfaces. Polypropylene (PP) was most resistant to chlorination, followed by high d. polyethylene (HDPE) and polystyrene (PS). Polystyrene showed degrdn., indicated by changes in Raman peak widths, at concn.-time regimes (CT values) as low as 75 mg min/L, whereas HDPE and PP remained unaltered even at chlorine doses characteristic of wastewater disinfection (150 mg min/L). However, HDPE and PS were not completely resistant to oxidative attack by chlorination. Under extremely harsh conditions, shifts in Raman peaks and the formation of new bonds were obsd. These results show that plastics commonly used in consumer products can be chem. altered, some even under conditions prevailing during wastewater treatment. Changes in polymer properties, obsd. for HDPE and PP under extreme exposure conditions only, are predicted to alter the risk microplastics pose to aquatic and terrestrial biota, since an increase in carbon-chlorine (C-Cl) bonds is known to increase toxicity, rendering the polymers more hydrophobic and thus more prone to adsorb, accumulate, and transport harmful persistent pollutants to biota in both aquatic and terrestrial environments.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhsVeksbrE&md5=c4e8136a3d3d694dca5b907c304fbac5

  75. 75

      Konda, A. ; Prakash, A. ; Moss, G. A. ; Schmoldt, M. ; Grant, G. D. ; Guha, S. Aerosol Filtration Efficiency of Common Fabrics Used in Respiratory Cloth Masks. ACS Nano 2020, 14 , 6339– 6347,  DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03252

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      75

      Aerosol Filtration Efficiency of Common Fabrics Used in Respiratory Cloth Masks

      Konda, Abhiteja; Prakash, Abhinav; Moss, Gregory A.; Schmoldt, Michael; Grant, Gregory D.; Guha, Supratik

      ACS Nano (2020), 14 (5), 6339-6347CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)

      The emergence of a pandemic affecting the respiratory system can result in a significant demand for face masks. This includes the use of cloth masks by large sections of the public, as can be seen during the current global spread of COVID-19. However, there is limited knowledge available on the performance of various commonly available fabrics used in cloth masks. Importantly, there is a need to evaluate filtration efficiencies as a function of aerosol particulate sizes in the 10 nm to 10μm range, which is particularly relevant for respiratory virus transmission. We have carried out these studies for several common fabrics including cotton, silk, chiffon, flannel, various synthetics, and their combinations. Although the filtration efficiencies for various fabrics when a single layer was used ranged from 5 to 80% and 5 to 95% for particle sizes of <300 nm and >300 nm, resp., the efficiencies improved when multiple layers were used and when using a specific combination of different fabrics. Filtration efficiencies of the hybrids (such as cotton-silk, cotton-chiffon, cotton-flannel) was >80% (for particles <300 nm) and >90% (for particles >300 nm). We speculate that the enhanced performance of the hybrids is likely due to the combined effect of mech. and electrostatic-based filtration. Cotton, the most widely used material for cloth masks performs better at higher weave densities (i.e., thread count) and can make a significant difference in filtration efficiencies. Our studies also imply that gaps (as caused by an improper fit of the mask) can result in over a 60% decrease in the filtration efficiency, implying the need for future cloth mask design studies to take into account issues of "fit" and leakage, while allowing the exhaled air to vent efficiently. Overall, we find that combinations of various commonly available fabrics used in cloth masks can potentially provide significant protection against the transmission of aerosol particles.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXnslChsr4%253D&md5=961b798525395cbb0bc53e325418e39d

what do bleach, strong cleaning agents, quats, solvents, and acetone have in common?

Source: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chas.1c00026

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